Modern slavery and labor exploitation during the COVID-19 pandemic: a conceptual model

Figures & data

Figure 1. Conceptual model depicting multilevel pathways to labor exploitation and the potential influence of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Note. Some of the root causes and risk factors of labor exploitation are listed within each ecological system (i.e. macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem). The dash lines represent permeability across ecological systems to show interconnections and how accumulation of risk factors may occur. The personal stressors (acute and chronic) box highlights contexts of persistent stress. Red text signifies the COVID-19 pandemic and how it might be intensifying risk factors and pathways. Individual characteristics and contextual factors are displayed which likely moderate the odds of labor exploitation.