A grounded theory of positive youth development through sport based on results from a qualitative meta-study

Figures & data

Figure 1. Search strategy.

Table 1. Meta-method extraction.

Study	Purpose	Setting	Theoretical Model/Conceptual Framework	Philosophical Perspective	Methodology	Sample	Sampling Strategy	Data Collection	Data Analysis	Validity
Allen, Rhind, and Kosky (2015)	Used the transfer ability program (TAP) to see if under achieving male students can transfer life skills from sports to an educational setting	UK	Life skills frameworks (Gould & Carson, 2008; Petitpas et al., 2005)	Not specified	Not specified	20 males (aged 12–13 years) 2/3 of participants spoke English as a second language	Not specified	Semi-structured interviews	Not clearly specified: appeared to be deductive-inductive thematic analysis	Prolonged engagement Persistent observation Data triangulation Three-person team approach to analysis Use of critical friend
Armour and Sandford (2013)	Four-year evaluation of a corporate-sponsored physical activity intervention to promote PYD through outdoor education activities	UK	Theory of change (Kellogg Foundation, 2004)	Not specified	Grounded theory	∼ 440 students (aged 13–14 years)	Participants selected by teachers	Individual student profiles Participant observation Focus groups Individual interviews Reflective journals Open-ended surveys	Thematic analysis	Not clear, but multiple methods may permit triangulation
Armour, Sandford, and Duncombe (2013)	Report findings of two youth sport/physical activity interventions (1) HSBC/Outward Bound Trust (a 5-year program) and (2) the SSLfS Program (an ongoing national initiative that stands for Sky Sports Living for Sport)	UK	No specific theory Life skills/PYD literature used as conceptual context	Not specified	Grounded theory	486 students (aged 13–14 years) 29 teachers 58 mentors	Participants selected by teachers	Participant observation Focus groups Individual interviews Reflective journals Open-ended surveys	Thematic analysis	Not clear, but multiple methods may permit triangulation
Bean, Forneris, and Halsall (2014)	To evaluate the first year implementation of a female youth program aiming to empower female youth through physical activity	Canada	TPSR (Hellison & Wright, 2003) and SUPER (Danish, 2002)	Not specified	Not specified	10 females (aged 11–14 years) 5 program leaders	Participants recruited from the Boys and Girls clubs in low-income areas	Leader logbook Semi-structured interviews	Inductive thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis Bracketing interview Triangulation of methods Triangulation of data sources
Brown and Fry (2011)	To provide an eight-week long physical activity and life skills program (Strong Girls) intervention for sixth-grade girls through a summer camp	US	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	20 females, (Mage = 11.8 years)	Convenience sample of summer camp attendees	Journals	Not specified	Not specified
Bruening, Dover, and Clark (2009)	Authors hypothesized that research would show improvement in the areas of self-esteem/self-worth, knowledge and improved physical abilities, accountability/responsibility for the self, connections to community, a sense of belonging, and the ability to apply knowledge and health skills within different environments	US	Theories of engagement and free-choice learning	Not specified	Not specified	5 ‘preadolescent girls of color’ and their parents	Not specified	Journals Interviews	Thematic analysis	Data triangulation Peer debriefing Member checking Team approach to analysis
Bruening, Clark, and Mudrick (2015)	To demonstrate the enduring impact and positive outcomes a sport-based youth development program (SBYD) for girls can have on participants	US	Social capital theory (Lin, 1999)	Not specified	Not specified	5 female preadolescents 3 of their mothers	Not specified	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Triangulation of data sources Team approach to analysis Member checking Peer debriefing
Camiré, Trudel, and Bernard (2013)	A case study examining an existing high school ice hockey program designed to teach life skills and values was conducted to understand the programs strengths and challenges from different perspectives	Canada	Life skills framework (Petitpas et al., 2005)	Not specified	Case study	14 male athletes (aged 16–17 years) 1 school principal 1 program director 6 coaches 7 parents (3 females, 4 males)	Senior year players recruited through program director	Document analysis Semi-structured interviews Nonparticipant observation	Deductive thematic analysis	Bracketing interview Data triangulation Peer review of analysis Member checking
Camiré, Trudel, and Forneris (2014)	Looked to examine how Canadian model youth sport coaches learn to facilitate PYD	Canada	Not specified	Not specified	Basic interpretive qualitative methodology	16 model high school coaches (Mage = 33 years)	Purposeful sampling to identify model coaches	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Peer review of analysis
Camiré, Trudel, and Forneris (2012)	To examine philosophies and strategies used by model high school coaches to coach life skills and to see how the skills transfer into other domains from a coach’s and athlete’s perspective	Canada	Model of coaching life skills (Gould & Carson, 2008)	Not specified	Not specified	16 student-athletes (Mage = 16 years) 9 coaches	Purposeful sampling to identify model coaches	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic Analysis	Peer review of analysis
Camiré and Trudel (2010)	To document the perspectives of high school athletes on the development of character	Canada	Framework of character development in sport participation (Rudd, 2005)	Not specified	Not specified	20 adolescents (10 males and 10 females, aged 13–17 years)	Purposeful sampling based on participation in high school sport	Semi-structured interviews	Deductive thematic analysis	Peer review of analysis
Camiré, Trudel, and Forneris (2009a)	To examine parents’ perspectives on the practice of high school sport in a Canadian context	Canada	Life skills framework (Petitpas et al, 2005)	Not specified	Not specified	20 parents (8 fathers, 12 mothers)	Purposeful sampling based on parents having at least one child involved in organized sport	Semi-structured interviews	Inductive and deductive thematic analysis	Peer review of analysis
Camiré, Trudel, and Forneris (2009b)	To document high school athletes’ perspectives on support, communication, negotiation, and life skill development	Canada	Life skills framework (Petitpas et al., 2005)	Not specified	Not specified	20 adolescents (10 males and 10 females, aged 13–17 years)	Maximum variation purposeful sampling to identified athletes with a range of experiences	Semi-structured interviews	Deductive-inductive thematic analysis	Not specified
Chinkov and Holt (2015)	To explore the transfer of life skills among adults who participated in Brazilian jiu-jitsu	Canada	Not specified	Interpretive	Qualitative descriptive	16 adults (aged 19–54 years)	Purposeful sample of athletes aged 18 years with at least 2 years’ experience. Variation in skill level and age range	Semi-structured interviews	Inductive thematic analysis	Pilot training and interview Team approach to analysis Member checking
Cowan, Taylor, McEwan, and Baker (2012)	To explore the coaching in a soccer program aimed at promoting life skills to disadvantaged youth	UK	Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000)	Interpretive	Case study	3 males (aged 17–18 years)	Not specified	Nonparticipant observation Video footage Semi-structured interviews	Abductive (inductive and deductive) thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis
Daud and Carruthers (2008)	To understand the impact of an after-school program for youth residing in a high-risk neighborhood and elements of the program that contributed to or undermined programmatic outcomes	US	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	25 students (aged 10–15 years) 4 program coordinators	Purposeful sampling (youth had to attend program at least twice per week)	Interviews Focus groups Field observation	Thematic analysis	Peer review Triangulation of data sources Member checking during focus groups
Dinanthompson, Sellwood, and Carless (2008)	To investigate the effectiveness of the Kickstart program in meeting its overall objective of enhancing life skills of Indigenous Australians through participation in the Australian Football League	Australia	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	38 adolescents (under 16 years) 3 parents 12 teachers	Varied sample (across ages and genders) recruited	Focus groups Semi-structured interviews Document analysis	Thematic analysis	Triangulation of data sources
Escarti, Gutiérrez, Pascual, and Llopis (2010)	Analyzed the application of TPSR model to primary school physical education classes during the academic year	Spain	TPSR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not specified	Not specified	42 students aged 11–12 years (22 males, 20 females)	Not specified	Semi-structured interviews	Not clear Appears to be thematic analysis	Not specified
Flett, Gould, Griffes, and Lauer (2013)	To describe and compare practices and perspectives of more and less effective volunteer coaches in an underserved sport setting	US	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	12 coaches (6 males, 6 females)	League directors identified coaches who had most/least positive influence on players’ character and life skills	Participant observation Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Pilot interviews Team approach to analysis Journaling
Fraser-Thomas and Côté (2009)	To gain an understanding of adolescents’ positive and negative experiences in sport from a developmental perspective	Canada	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	22 athletes (aged 14–18 years, 5 males, 17 females)	Maximum variation sampling	Semi-structured interview	Content analysis	Participants reviewed transcripts Team approach to analysis Independent researcher checked analysis
Fuller, Percey, Bruening, and Cotrufo (2013)	Explored (1) what attracted minority boys to participate in youth development programs, (2) what kept them involved, and (3) whether their involvement translated into positive developmental outcomes	US	Positive youth centered framework 5 C’s and Sixth C of development (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003)	Not specified	Not specified	8 males (aged 10–14 years) 16 parents	School counselor identified boys who might be interested in participating plus snowball sampling	Two semi-structured interviews and exit interview	Deductive thematic analysis	Data triangulation Member checking
Goudas and Giannoudis (2010)	A qualitative evaluation of the SUPER program in physical education setting	Greece	SUPER (Danish, 2002)	Not specified	Not specified	86 students (grades 6–8, 40 males, 46 females)	Not specified	Field notes Student notebooks Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Third review of analysis Prolonged engagement Triangulation of sources Reflexive journal Peer debriefing
Gould, Collings, Lauer, and Chung (2007)	Examined how outstanding high school football coaches developed life skills in their players	US	Not specified	Pragmatic qualitative perspective	Not specified	10 coaches (aged 47–68 years)	Purposeful sampling of coaches were finalists for NFL coach of the year program	Survey Semi-structured interviews	Content analysis Creation o coach profiles	Team approach to data analysis
Gould, Voelker, and Griffes (2013)	To gain an understanding of the youth leadership development process in sport through qualitative interviews with high school coaches who have a reputation for cultivating leadership in their captains	US	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	10 high school coaches (6 males, 4 females)	Purposeful sampling (coaches identified by league administrator)	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Participant review of individual profiles Team approach to data analysis
Hardcastle, Tye, Glassey, and Hagger (2015)	Evaluate the experience of, and perceived effectiveness of, a life-skills program	Australia	Life skills framework (Gould & Carson, 2008)	Not specified	Not specified	54 athletes aged 13–18 years 4 program facilitators 4 coaches 8 parents 4 administrators	Opportunistic sampling	Focus groups, semi-structured interviews	Inductive thematic analysis	Triangulation of data sources
Harrist and Witt (2012)	Increase understanding of youth basketball as a positive developmental context	US	Not specified	Not specified	Grounded theory	31 female athletes (Mage = 13.4 years) 3 coaches	Coaches purposefully sampled based on team success, experience, and exhibition of positive interactions during prestudy observations	Semi-structured interviews Observation Focus groups	Open and axial coding	Triangulation of data sources Team approach to analysis Member checking
Harwood (2008)	To present practitioners and applied researchers with specific details of a developmental sport psychology program and coaching intervention at a professional football (soccer) academy.	UK	5Cs of football (Higham, Harwood, & Cale 2005)	Not specified	Quasi-Experimental Design (mixed methods)	6 male coaches (aged 23–42 years)	Purposefully Sampled	Social validation post-intervention interviews	Not specified	Not specified
Harrist and Witt (2014)	To increase our understanding of youth basketball as a positive developmental context	US	Not specified	Not specified	Grounded theory	31 female athletes (Mage = 14 years) 3 coaches	Team coaches were purposefully sampled based on team success, five years experience, and positive interactions observed during prestudy observation period	Semi-structured interviews with coaches Observation Focus groups with players	Grounded theory analytic techniques	Team approach to analysis Member checking
Hayden et al. (2015)	To examine the life skills developed through sport participation at three international high schools	Malaysia Panama China	Not specified	Constructivist	Not specified	29 high school athletes aged 18 years (16 females, 13 males)	Schools purposefully selected to give international perspective	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis Member checking with six participants
Holt, Kingsley, Tink, and Scherer (2011)	To examine low-income parents’ and their children’s perceptions of the benefits associated with participation in youth sport	Canada	Ecological systems theory	Interpretive	Interpretive description	17 parents 18 children (7 females, 11 males, Mage = 12.5 years)	Families sampled based on annual (low) income, recruited via a non profit	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis Triangulation of data sources Expert feedback
Holt et al. (2013)	Develop, implement and evaluate sport-based after school programs for students in low-income areas	Canada	Not specified	Not specified	Participatory action research (PAR)	Phase 1: 28 children 2 teachers Phase 2: 14 children 3 teachers	Purposefully selected	Semi-structured interviews	Inductive content analysis procedure	Team approach to analysis Categories reviewed by researchers, principals and some teachers for member checking
Holt, Sehn, Spence, Newton, and Ball (2012)	Examined school staff members’ and children’s perceptions of the physical education program, intramural sports, and sports teams in an attempt to understand the factors that facilitated or impeded PYD	Canada	Theories of PYD to create conceptual context	Not specified	Case study	8 school staff 59 children (28 females, 31 males, Mage = 12.4 years)	Purposefully sampled school in low-income neighborhood with approach consistent with PYD and emphasis on sport programs	Fieldwork Interviews	Categorical aggregation (thematic)	Prolonged engagement Team approach to analysis Data triangulation
Holt, Tamminen, Tink, and Black (2009)	To examine how people may learn life skills through their involvement in regular competitive sport programs	Canada	Not specified	Interpretive	Interpretive interactionism	40 young adults (20 males, 20 females, Mage = 22 years)	Purposeful sampling of participants with experience in competitive sport (across a range of different sports)	Semi-structured interviews	Interpretive (thematic) analysis	Reflexivity Team approach to analysis
Holt, Tink, Mandigo, and Fox (2008)	To examine whether and how youth learned life skills through their involvement on a high school soccer team	Canada	Ecological systems perspective 5Cs of PYD Domains of growth experiences	Realist	Ethnography	12 male student athletes (Mage = 17.1 years) 1 head coach	Purposefully sampled a school with a good reputation for athletics and a coach who was regarded as a good leader	Participant observation, documentation (national, provincial, policy) Researcher notes, semi-structured interviews	Description interpretation analysis (thematic)	Reflexivity Triangulation of data sources Member checking
Iachini, Beets, Ball, and Lohman (2014)	Examined how one specific physical activity-based positive youth development program (Girls on the Run) was implemented to identify design features that help maximize positive youth outcomes	US	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	386 girls 13 female coaches (age 18–49 years) provided primary source of qualitative data	Not specified	Site visits and self-report checklists Focus groups	Thematic analysis (inductive)	Debriefing Prolonged engagement Triangulation of data sources Member checking
Johnston, Harwood, and Minniti (2013)	Examined the assets considered necessary to develop in young swimmers to ensure individual and sport-specific development	UK	Gerring’s (1999) critical framework of concept formation	Interpretive	Not specified	10 adults (Mage = 44.6 years; 4 coaches, 2 administrators, 6 sport psychology practitioners/academics	Not specified	Document analysis Individual interviews	Thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis Reflexive journal Expert review
Jones and Lavallee (2009a)	To explore how life skills are defined, which life skills British adolescent athletes need, and which life skills are most important	UK	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	38 participants (including graduate students, experts, coaches, and athletes)	Not specified	Focus groups	Thematic analysis	Triangulation of data sources Interrater reliability checks
Jones, and Lavallee (2009b)	Explore how perceived life skills were developed	UK	Not specified	Not specified	Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis	1 female athlete (aged 22 years)	Purposive sampling to recruit an athlete with ‘strong life skills’ (p 38)	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	On-going member checking with participant
Light (2010)	To explore social, personal and cultural development arising from being in a swimming club	Australia	Situated learning perspective (Lave & Wenger, 1991)	Not specified	Ethnography	20 children (6 males, 14 females, aged 9–12 years) 20 parents 4 coaches	Not specified	Semi-structured interviews Photography	Grounded theory analysis	Not specified
Koh, Ong, and Camiré (2014)	To investigate the perspectives of physical education (PE) teachers, sports coaches, PE students and athletes from a Singaporean school taking part in an instructional program designed to teach values through physical education and sport	Singapore	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	3 PE teachers, 3 sport coaches, 16 PE students (aged 10–12 years) 16 athletes (aged 10–12 years)	Not specified	Semi-structured interviews (adults) Focus groups (children)	Thematic analysis	Triangulation of data sources Peer review
Martinek, Schilling, and Hellison (2006)	To describe how youth leadership evolved into two programs for low-income minority youth	US	TPSR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not Specified	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	Focus groups, interviews, leaders written reflections, field notes and informal interactions	Not Specified	Not specified
McCallister, Blinde, and Weiss (2000)	To identify the values and life skills that coaches deem important and the manner in which coaches claim to teach these skills To examine the philosophies of youth sport coaches and the degree to which coaches implement such philosophies	US	Not specified	Not specified	Not specified	22 coaches (10 females, 12 males)	Only women coaching girls and men coaching boys were eligible to participate	Semi-structured interviews	Content analysis	Team approach to analysis
Neely and Holt (2014)	To examine parents’ perspectives on the benefits of sport participation for their young children	Canada	Not specified	Interpretivist	Interpretive description	22 parents (12 females, 10 males)	Purposeful sampling to recruit parents of children aged 5–8 years who were ‘sampling’ sport	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Concurrent data collection and analysis Team approach to analysis Member checking
Newin, Bloom, and Lougheed (2008)	To explain youth ice hockey coaches’ perceptions of the effectiveness of a team-building intervention program	Canada	Team building conceptual model (Carron & Spink, 1993)	Not specified	Not specified	8 coaches of players aged 11–13 years	Not specified	Pre and post intervention survey Observation Semi-structured exit interview	Inductive thematic analysis	Member checking Peer review Prolonged engagement Triangulation of data sources
Olushola, Jones, Dixon, and Green (2013)	To determine the components of a school-based sports program that creates long-term benefits for African American Girls	US	Not specified	Not specified	Interpretive case study	12 former players 4 parents 7 school administrators 4 player mentors	Snowball Sampling	Semi-structured interviews, group interviews	Thematic Analysis	Not specified
Pascual et al. (2011)	To examine the implementation of a program Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR)	Spain	TSPR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not specified	Comparative case study	2 teachers 22 students (7 females, 15 males, Mage = 10.8 years)	Purposeful sampling of teachings who identified with program philosophy and were willing to learn and apply program	Observations Semi- structured interviews	Theoretical proposition approach (Yin, 2003). Similar to thematic analysis	Triangulation of data sources Team approach to analysis Peer debriefing Member checking
Peralta, O’Connor, Cotton, and Bennie (2014)	To investigate the effect of a community and school sport program on Indigenous adolescents’ life skills and physical activity levels	Australia	Not specified	Not specified	Nonrandomized pre/post-test mixed methods	18 Indigenous adolescents 6 adult stakeholders	Adolescents based on Indigenous status	Focus groups with adolescents Individual interviews with stakeholders	Thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis
Riley and Anderson-Butcher (2012)	To gain a greater understanding of parents’ perceptions of the impact of a sport-based summer PYD camp	US	Learning in fitness and Education (LiFE) based on TPSR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not specified	Grounded Theory	10 parents (age range 31–58 years)	Purposeful sampling of parents based on children being in first year of program, receiving free or reduced lunch, and having child 10–12 years	Semi-structured interviews	Grounded theory analytic techniques	Negative case analysis Memos and audit trail Peer debriefing Member checking
Schilling (2001)	To examine underserved youth participants’ perceptions of program commitment over a multiyear period to an extended day physical activity program called Project Effort	US	TPSR Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not specified	Not specified	7 participants (4 females, 3 males, age range 12–15 years)	Purposeful sampling based on participation in program for at least four years, participation in apprentice program, current involvement	Individual interviews Focus groups	Thematic analysis	Member checking External collaborator during data analysis Peer debriefing
Schilling, Martinek, and Carson (2007)	To evaluate both the processes and outcomes of program commitment within the context of a specific responsibility-based physical activity program	US	TPSR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not specified	Not specified	12 adolescents (Mage = 16.7 years)	Purposeful sampling of adolescents who had been in program for at least two years	Semi-structured interviews	Inductive and deductive thematic analysis	Peer debriefing Cross case comparison Member checking
Simard, Laberge, and Dusseault (2014)	To explore how participation in a psychosocial program using sport as an intervention tool could foster the process of empowerment in young women at risk of delinquency and school dropout	Canada	Not specified	Interpretive interactionist	Grounded theory (‘elements of’)	7 female young adults (Mage = 19 years)	Purposeful sampling of individuals involved in program for at least one year	Semi-Structured interviews	Open coding, transversal analysis	Team approach to analysis
Strachan and Davies (2015)	Used photo elicitation to explore youth experiences and positive development in sport	Canada	National Research Council and Institute of Medicine features of programs to promote PYD	Constructivist/realist	Not specified	Study 1: 12 athletes (9 females, 3 males, Mage = 11.0 years) Study 2: 14 athletes (2 females, 12 males, Mage = 9.4 years)	Purposeful sampling of athletes involved in sport for at least 10 hours per week	Focus groups Photo elicitation	Deductive content analysis	Peer review of coding as reliability check Transcripts checked by participants
Strachan, Côté, and Deakin (2011)	To investigate the presence of setting features within elite youth sport contexts from a coach’s perspective.	Canada	NCRIM (2002) setting features	Not specified	Not specified	5 coaches (3 males, 2 females)	Purposeful sampling of coaches based on involvement in sport	Semi-structured interviews Observation	Deductive thematic analysis	Participants checked the accuracy of their transcript Methods triangulation
Trottier and Robitaille (2014)	To gain an understanding of coaches’ perceptions of their role in the development of life skills in adolescent athletes in two different sport contexts	Canada	Not specified	Not specified	Case study	24 coaches (6 females, 18 males)	Reputational sampling procedure of coaches who placed emphasis on personal and athletic development	Semi-structured interviews	Deductive and inductive content analysis	Researcher debriefing Participants verified individual summaries of findings
Turnnidge, Vierimaa, and Côté (2012)	To describe the sport experiences of athletes with physical disabilities in a model swim program that has been widely recognized for the development of positive values in athletes.	Canada	PYD (Damon, 2004)	Not specified	Qualitative descriptive	8 athletes (3 males, 5 females, aged 9–19 years)	Program purposefully selected as model program. No information on sampling of athletes specified	Semi-structured interviews	Inductive and deductive content analysis	Team approach to analysis Peer reliability check
Vella et al. (2011)	Explored coaching practitioners’ understanding of their leadership role and the outcomes that they desired for their athletes as a result of their coaching	Australia	Not specified	Not specified	Qualitative methodology mentioned, but no specific methodology	22 coaches (16 males, 6 females, Mage = 43.14 years)	Purposefully sampled ‘participation’ level coaches	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis
Ward and Parker (2013)	Purpose was to examine the atmosphere of a PYD program grounded in self-determination theory (SDT) through the eyes of participants	US	Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2008)	Not specified	Case study (with some elements of ethnography)	23 children (14 males, 9 females) 4th and 5th grade	Children enrolled in after-school program. No other specific sampling criteria reported	Focus groups Individual interviews Field notes Artifacts (documents)	Inductive thematic analysis	Team approach to analysis Prolonged engagement Member checking Peer debriefing
Weiss, Stuntz, Bhalla, Bolter, and Price (2013)	To assess effectiveness and impact of The First Tee life skills program in achieving its goals of positive youth development	US	PYD framework (Petitpas et al., 2005)	Not specified	Qualitative Research design	95 youth (33 females, 62 males, Mage = 13.6 years) 36 coaches (14 males, 12 females) 24 parents	Not specified	Individual interviews Focus groups	Deductive and inductive content analysis	Training of researchers Team approach to analysis Triangulation of data sources Member checking
Whitley, Wright, and Gould (2013)	Interviewed coaches in South Africa an attempt to gain a better understanding of the realities of the sport setting, the experiences of coaches and young people in these underserved communities, and what approach to take when designing, implementing, and evaluating Sport for Development (SfD) programs	South Africa	Not specified	Constructivist	Phenomenology	19 coaches	Purposefully sampled South African citizens at least 18 years, who could converse in English, and have at least two years experience coaching children	Focus groups	Inductive content analysis	Team approach to analysis (multiple codes, consensus validation) Peer debrief
Whitley, Hayden, and Gould (2015)	To understand the nature of sport and sport-based youth development in the community of Kayamandi Township in South Africa	South Africa	No specific framework, but sport for development and PYD used for conceptual context	Constructivist	Phenomenology	10 coaches 11 community members 19 athletes (aged 9–20 years, Mage = 16.2 years)	Snowball sampling	Semi-structured interviews	Inductive content analysis	Triangulation of data sources Team approach to analysis (multiple codes, consensus validation) Peer review
Wright and Burton (2008)	To explore implementation and short-term outcomes of a responsibility-based physical activity program that was integrated into an intact high school physical education class	US	TSPR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not specified	Not specified	23 high school students (14 females, 9 males, Mage = 14.8 years)	Participants enrolled in the wellness program (no other sampling criteria reported)	Individual interviews Observations Lesson plans Student logs Student written reflections Learner assessments Open-ended program evaluation survey	Deductive and inductive thematic analysis	Triangulation of data sources Peer debriefing Member checking Peer debrief
Walsh (2007)	To compare youth development outcomes for participants in a TPSR program to the same outcomes of their school day	US	TPSR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Not specified	Mixed-methodology	10 students (9 males, 1 female, grades 4–5)	Children who attended program and resided in school’s local low-income housing	Interviews	Content analysis	Not specified
Walsh, Ozaeta, and Wright (2010)	To examine the degree of transference of the four primary TPSR goals from a coaching club program to a participants school environment	US	TPSR (Hellison & Wright, 2003)	Interpretive/constructivist	Qualitative approach	13 students (11 males, 2 females from grades K-5)	Not specified	Semi-structured Interviews Observation Document analysis Participant journals	Inductive and deductive analysis	Follow up interviews Member checking Peer debriefing Triangulation of data sources Audit trail

Table 2. Overview of meta-analysis results.

Category	Theme	Explanation	Studies
Social Environment
	Adult relationships	Strong relationships between youth and adult program leaders and coaches	Armour et al. (2013), Camiré, Trudel, and Bernard (2013), Camiré et al. (2009a), Flett et al. (2013), Fraser-Thomas and Côté (2009), Gould et al. (2007), Harrist and Witt (2012), Holt et al. (2009), Iachini et al. (2014), Light (2010), Olushola et al. (2013), Schilling et al. (2007), Strachan and Davies (2015), Strachan et al. (2011), Turnnidge et al. (2012), Ward and Parker (2013), Walsh (2007), Martinek et al. (2006), Riley and Anderson-Butcher (2012)
	Peer relationships	Strong relationships among youth, including opportunities for peer leadership (including sense of community)	Allen et al. (2015), Armour et al. (2013), Bean et al. (2014), Whitley et al. (2015), Fraser-Thomas and Côté (2009), Goudas and Giannoudis (2010), Harrist and Witt (2012), Harrist and Witt (2014), Hayden et al. (2015), Holt et al. (2013), Holt et al. (2009), Johnston et al. (2013), Olushola et al. (2013), Schilling et al. (2007), Strachan and Davies (2015), Strachan et al. (2011), Turnnidge et al. (2012), Ward and Parker (2013), Weiss et al. (2013)
	Parental involvement	Parents supporting youth involvement in positive ways	Camiré et al. (2009a), Camiré et al. (2009b), Fraser-Thomas and Côté (2009), Gould et al. (2007), Holt et al. (2009), Neely and Holt (2014), Strachan et al. (2011), Turnnidge et al. (2012), Riley and Anderson-Butcher (2012)
Activities
	Life skill building activities	Use of specific pedagogical strategies focused on teaching life skills.	Armour et al. (2013), Bean et al. (2014), Brown and Fry (2011), Camiré and Trudel (2010), Camiré et al. (2009a), Camiré et al. (2012), Camiré et al. (2013), Cowan et al. (2012), Daud and Carruthers (2008), Dinanthompson et al. (2008), Escarti et al. (2010), Flett et al. (2013), Fraser-Thomas and Côté (2009), Goudas and Giannoudis (2010), Gould et al. (2007), Hardcastle et al. (2015), Harrist and Witt (2012), Harwood (2008), Neely and Holt (2014), Holt et al. (2008), Holt et al. (2012), Holt et al. (2013), Iachini et al. (2014), Light (2010), Olushola et al. (2013), Strachan et al. (2011), Trottier and Robitaille (2014), Turnnidge et al. (2012), Walsh (2007), Walsh et al. (2010), Weiss et al. (2013), Wright and Burton (2008)
	Transfer activities	Ways in which transfer of personal and social skills learned in sport to other life situations may occur.	Allen et al. (2015), Bruening et al. (2009), Koh et al. (2014), Camiré et al. (2009a), Camiré et al. (2012), Chinkov and Holt (2015), Flett et al. (2013), Goudas and Giannoudis (2010), Gould et al. (2007), Holt et al. (2013), Jones and Lavallee (2009a, 2009b), Newin et al. (2008), Simard et al. (2014), Trottier and Robitaille (2014), Wright and Burton (2008), Weiss et al. (2013)
PYD Outcomes	Personal domain	PYD outcomes related to personal development	Allen et al. (2015), Armour and Sandford (2013), Bruening et al. (2009), Camiré and Trudel (2010), Camiré et al. (2009a), Camiré et al. (2009b), Chinkov and Holt (2015), Daud and Carruthers (2008), Dinanthompson et al. (2008), Fraser-Thomas and Côté (2009), Fuller et al. (2013), Goudas and Giannoudis (2010), Hardcastle et al. (2015), Harrist and Witt (2014), Hayden et al. (2015), Holt et al. (2011), Holt et al. (2013), Holt et al. (2008), Johnston et al. (2013), Jones and Lavallee (2009a), Neely and Holt (2014), Newin et al. (2008), Peralta et al. (2014), Riley and Anderson-Butcher (2012), Simard et al. (2014), Turnnidge et al. (2012), Vella et al. (2011), Walsh et al. (2010), Weiss et al. (2013), Whitley et al. (2015)
	Social domain	PYD outcomes related to improved social relationships and skills	Armour and Sandford (2013), Bean et al. (2014), Bruening et al. (2009), Camiré and Trudel (2010), Camiré et al. (2009a), Camiré et al. (2009b), Chinkov and Holt (2015), Dinanthompson et al. (2008), Flett et al. (2013), Fraser-Thomas and Côté (2009), Fuller et al. (2013) , Gould et al. (2013), Harwood (2008) , Holt et al. (2011), Holt et al. (2013), Holt et al. (2009), Johnston et al. (2013), Jones and Lavallee (2009a), Light (2010), Martinek et al. (2006), Neely and Holt (2014) , Newin et al. (2008), Olushola et al. (2013), Riley and Anderson-Butcher (2012), Schilling et al. (2007), Strachan et al. (2011), Turnnidge et al. (2012), Vella et al. (2011), Walsh (2007) , Walsh et al. (2010), Weiss et al. (2013), Wright and Burton (2008)
	Physical domain	PYD outcomes related to physical skill development	Bruening et al. (2009) , Camiré et al. (2009a), Chinkov and Holt (2015), Fuller et al. (2015), Holt et al. (2013), Neely and Holt (2014), Vella et al. (2011)

Figure 2. Model of PYD through sport.

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