Toxic heavy metal ions contamination in the aqueous environment, its toxicity and methods of microbial remediation

Figures & data

Figure 1. Natural and anthropogenic sources of heavy metal ions in the water.

Figure 2. Heavy metal exposure and toxicity in humans.

Table 1. Permissible limits of heavy metal ions in drinking water and toxicity mechanism.

Heavy metals	Permissible limit of heavy metal ions as per WHO guideline (mg/L)	Heavy metal-mediated toxicity	References
V (II)	–	Severe throat, headaches, nausea, neural toxicity, liver and kidney haemorrhage, paralyzes and behavioral changes, cardiac disorder, gastrointestinal disorder	(29)
Cr (VI)	0.05	Oral intake and inhalation of Cr (VI) causes several health impacts, such as gastrointestinal ulceration, nausea and vomiting, liver damage, kidney damage and lung cancer	(30)
Co (II)	–	Skin and respiratory issues, respiratory disorder, Pneumonia and fibrosis, Cardiac effects, cardiac liver, kidney failure and Allergic dermatitis	(31)
Ni (II)	0.02	Respiratory disorders, heart failure and carcinogenic effects	(32)
Cu (II)	1.3	Cu (II) uptake can cause hepatic and kidney damage, anxiety, brain damage and also cause cancers in human	(33)
As (III & V)	0.01	As (III & V) toxicity in humans can cause gastro-intestinal disorders, lung irritation, changes in the skin, a decrease in the production of blood cells, heart problems, neurotoxicity, DNA and protein damage and carcinogenicity	(34,35)
Cd (II)	0.003	Nephrotoxicity, reproductive effects, calcium metabolism alterations, gastrointestinal disorders, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity and carcinogenicity	(35,36)
Pb (II)	0.01	Hypertension, brain disorder, gastrointestinal effects, sperm damage, iron deficiency, neurotoxicity, mental retardation in children	(36,37)

Figure 3. Heavy metal-induced mutagenicity.

Figure 4. Bacterial-mediated bioremediation of heavy metal ions.

Table 2. Cr (VI) removal efficiency of microorganisms.

Microorganism	Removal efficiency (%)	Optimum pH	Optimum temperature	Initial Cr (VI) concentration (mg/L)	References
Bacillus subtilis	96	9	30	50	(61)
Cellulosimicrobiumfunkei AR8	100	7	35	100–250	(62)
Staphylococcus capitis	89	7	37	–	(63)
Pseudomonas putida	95.68	6.5	37	–	(64)
Bacillus subtilis (Bacteria)	95.19	7	37	–	(64)
Acinetobactersp.	75	7	75	–	(65)

Table 3. Pb (II) removal efficiency of microorganisms.

Microorganism	Removal efficiency (%)	Optimum pH	Optimum temperature	Initial Pb (II) concentration (mg/L)	References
Bacillus sp. (phosphate solubilizing bacteria)	95	-	-	300	(66)
Citrobacter sp. Strain MKH2	95.06	-	30	80	(67)
Bacillus sp. Strain AS2	99.5	4.5	30	500	(68)
Cedecea sp strain SC19	60.7	7	37	600	(69)
Arthrobacter sp. GQ-9	56.60	5.5	28	100	(69)
Absidia cylindrospora	59.00	-	-	50	(70)
Pleurotus Ostreatus	35.60	-	-	45.4	(71)
Pseudochlorococcum typicum	86.00	-	-	20	(72)
Porphyra leucosticte	90.00	-	-	10	(73)
Drechslera hawaiiensis	99.26	-	-	90	(74)

Table 4. Cd (II) removal efficiency of microorganisms.

Microorganism	Removal efficiency (%)	Optimum pH	Optimum temperature	Initial Cd (II) concentration (mg/L)	References
Bacillus sp. Strain Q3	58	5	38.6	50.6	(75)
Bacillus sp. Strain Q3	78	5	38.3	50	(75)
Cedecea sp strain SC19	51	7	37	120	(69)
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia ZZC-06	81.43	6	30	10	(76)
Pseudomonas azotoformans strain JAW1	44.67	6	30	25	(77)
Enterobacter sp. strain WS12 (RZ1)	87.75	7	35	0.1	(78)
Enterobacter sp. strain WS12 (RZ2)	85.11	7	35	0.1	(78)
Enterobacter sp. S2	95	–	32	1000	(79)
Pseudomonas sp. M3	70	7	35	550	(78)
Pantoea agglomerans strain UCP1320	100	6	35	10	(80)
Absidia cylindrospora	68.00	-	-	50	(81)
Agaricus macrospores	13.00	-	-	10	(71)
Pseudochlorococcum typicum	70.00	-	-	20	(82)
Porphyra leucosticte	70.00	-	-	10	(82)
Drechslera hawaiiensis	99.26	-	-	30 mg L^−1	(74)

Table 5. As (III/V) removal efficiency of microorganisms.

Microorganism	Removal efficiency (%)	Optimum pH	Optimum temperature	Initial As (III/V) concentration (mg/L)	References
Bacillus sp.	51.45	7.23	30°C	100	(83)
Aneurinibacillus aneurinilyticus	51.99	7.23	30°C	100	(83)
Bacillus nealsonii strain ARP2	77.00	-		100	(84)
Stenotrophomonas sp.	100	-	30°C	100	(85)
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia	100	-	30°C	100	(85)
Pseudomonas sp	100	-	30°C	100	(85)
Pseudomonas putida	100	-	30°C	100	(85)
Bacillus macerans	92	7	30°C	100	(86)

Figure 5. Aerobic and anaerobic reduction of Cr (VI).

Figure 6. Heavy metals uptake mechanisms by plants and microbes (127).

Table 6. The advantages and limitations of the heavy metal removal method.

Methods	Advantage	Disadvantages/ Limitations	References
Oxidation	It is a rapid process of heavy metal remediation	There are several toxic by-products generated in this process	(149)
Ion exchange	This method is applied for the effective remediation of a wide range of heavy metal ions	Required regeneration or disposal of used adsorbents	(149,150)
Chemical precipitation	This methods also effective for the conversion and remediation of heavy metal ions	In this method, large amounts of chemical sludge produe	(151)
Adsorption	This method has some advantages such as flexibility and simplicity of method design of this method	Regeneration of the adsorbent is required after the adsorption process	(149,152,153)
Microbial remediation	This is eco-friendly, cost-effective and effective removal of heavy metals. This method is also effective when heavy metal concentration is very lower amount. Most physiochemical methods are not effective at lower concentrations of heavy metals in the water	Requirement of growth media and maintenance of optimum growth conditions for microorganisms Microbial methods are yet to be established and commercialized	(89,113,154)

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Data availability statement

Data mentioned in this manuscript.