Progress on reducing acrylamide levels in potato crisps in Europe, 2002 to 2019

Figures & data

Table 1. Acrylamide (ng g⁻¹) in samples of potato crisps over years, showing mean, standard error of mean (SE), number of observations (n), 85%, 90% and 95% quantiles (Q85, Q90 and Q95), maximum levels, and proportion (%) of samples containing greater than 750, 1000 and 2000 ng g⁻¹. (a) Data provided by the European Snacks Association (ESA), compiled from data supplied by European manufacturers. (b) Data provided by the European Food Standards Agency (EFSA), compiled from data supplied by European Union Member States. (c) The yearly means for the ESA and EFSA data shown together, and the fold-difference

(a)
Year	Mean	SE	n	Q85	Q90	Q95	Max	% > 750	% > 1000	% > 2000
2002	763	91.1	42	1306	1581	2080	2500	40.48	23.81	4.76
2003	573	27.3	136	883	976	1118	2080	25.74	8.09	0.74
2004	624	26.6	321	940	1168	1580	4450	23.68	12.77	1.25
2005	621	21.3	230	980	1085	1210	1780	30	13.48	0
2006	577	11.9	1151	910	1100	1350	2830	23.02	11.3	1.3
2007	570	7	3206	880	1000	1270	5900	21.65	9.98	0.87
2008	472	5.1	5692	770	903	1170	4300	15.79	7.54	0.77
2009	500	5.8	6493	861	1037	1400	6000	19.13	10.87	1.49
2010	435	4.1	10971	659	780	1020	12000	10.92	5.16	0.96
2011	358	2.5	12213	573	680	870	3090	7.71	3.16	0.22
2012	415	3.3	8656	645	784	1020	4500	10.91	5.2	0.23
2013	423	4.4	5371	690	830	1090	2635	12.44	6.16	0.28
2014	397	3.4	5710	630	740	920	2049	9.53	3.7	0.02
2015	422	3.8	6407	660	790	1020	2600	11.03	5.18	0.23
2016	412	3.8	7264	640	770	1018	3400	10.68	5.19	0.59
2017	362	3.2	7263	558	651	863	4100	7.35	3.07	0.21
2018	353	2.7	8829	561	654	819	3600	6.46	2.53	0.12
2019	372	2.6	9749	586	690	859	3000	7.75	2.66	0.17
(b)
Year	Mean	SE	n	Q85	Q90	Q95	Max	% > 750	% > 1000	% > 2000
2011	621	49.5	223	1141	1453	1835	6719	25.11	17.49	4.48
2012	600	39.5	249	984	1263	1981	5140	23.69	14.06	4.82
2013	521	36.6	221	927	1325	1618	3340	19	14.48	2.72
2014	575	31	265	1024	1300	1653	3146	25.28	15.85	1.51
2015	715	40.5	254	1252	1383	1753	5887	36.61	20.87	2.76
2016	591	31.5	280	1052	1258	1566	3675	29.64	16.07	2.5
2017	493	31.1	337	1000	1199	1516	4000	19.88	14.84	2.671
2018	505	28.5	295	821	935	1337	4397	19.32	9.15	1.36
(c)
Year	ESA	EFSA	Fold-difference	Year	ESA	EFSA	Fold-difference
2011	358	621	1.74	2015	422	715	1.69
2012	415	600	1.45	2016	412	591	1.44
2013	423	521	1.23	2017	362	493	1.36
2014	397	574	1.45	2018	353	505	1.43

Figure 1. Overall mean acrylamide levels (ng g⁻¹) in samples of potato crisps shown over years, with standard errors and trends in 85%, 90% and 95% quantiles. (a) European Snacks Association data for years 2002–2019, compiled from data supplied by European manufacturers. (b) European Food Safety Authority data for years 2011–2018, compiled from data supplied by European Union Member States

Table 2. Analysis of variance of European Snacks Association acrylamide data for samples of potato crisps from Europe for 2002 to 2019 to show differences between years. (a) Mean acrylamide (ng g⁻¹) for each year on the natural log (to base e) scale and number of observations (n). (b) Least significant difference (LSD) values on 99686 degrees of freedom at the 5% (p < .05) level of significance. The value for a particular comparison of the means in Table 2 is given by reading along the appropriate row and up the appropriate column

(a)
Year	Mean (on loge scale)	n	Year	Mean (on loge scale)	n
2002	6.3508	42	2011	5.6536	12213
2003	6.2165	136	2012	5.8191	8656
2004	6.2496	321	2013	5.8147	5371
2005	6.2855	230	2014	5.7999	5710
2006	6.1580	1151	2015	5.8454	6407
2007	6.1475	3206	2016	5.7959	7264
2008	5.9078	5692	2017	5.6803	7263
2009	5.8986	6493	2018	5.6574	8829
2010	5.8328	10971	2019	5.7321	9749
(b)
LSDs (5%, 99686 df)
2002	*
2003	0.22733	*
2004	0.21131	0.13176	*
2005	0.21609	0.1393	0.11125	*
2006	0.2023	0.11677	0.08129	0.09301	*
2007	0.20001	0.11275	0.07539	0.08791	0.04425	*
2008	0.19944	0.11174	0.07388	0.08661	0.04162	0.02844	*
2009	0.19935	0.11158	0.07363	0.08641	0.04119	0.0278	0.02338
2010	0.19909	0.11111	0.07292	0.0858	0.0399	0.02585	0.02104
2011	0.19905	0.11104	0.07282	0.08571	0.03971	0.02556	0.02067
2012	0.19919	0.11129	0.0732	0.08604	0.0404	0.02662	0.02198
2013	0.19949	0.11182	0.07399	0.08671	0.04183	0.02874	0.0245
2014	0.19944	0.11173	0.07387	0.08661	0.04161	0.02842	0.02412
2015	0.19936	0.11159	0.07366	0.08643	0.04123	0.02786	0.02346
2016	0.19928	0.11146	0.07345	0.08625	0.04086	0.02731	0.0228
2017	0.19928	0.11146	0.07345	0.08625	0.04086	0.02731	0.0228
2018	0.19918	0.11127	0.07317	0.08601	0.04036	0.02655	0.02189
2019	0.19914	0.1112	0.07305	0.08591	0.04014	0.02622	0.02148
	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008
LSDs (5%, 99686 df)
2009	*
2010	0.02016	*
2011	0.01978	0.01694	*
2012	0.02114	0.01851	0.01809	*
2013	0.02375	0.02145	0.02108	0.02237	*
2014	0.02336	0.02101	0.02065	0.02196	0.02448	*
2015	0.02268	0.02025	0.01987	0.02122	0.02382	0.02344	*
2016	0.02199	0.01948	0.01908	0.02049	0.02317	0.02278	0.02207
2017	0.02199	0.01948	0.01908	0.02049	0.02318	0.02278	0.02207
2018	0.02105	0.01841	0.01799	0.01948	0.02228	0.02187	0.02113
2019	0.02063	0.01792	0.01749	0.01902	0.02188	0.02146	0.02071
	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015
LSDs (5%, 99686 df)
2016	*
2017	0.02137	*
2018	0.02040	0.02040	*
2019	0.01996	0.01996	0.01892	*
	2016	2017	2018	2019

Table 3. Analysis of variance of EFSA acrylamide data for potato crisps from 2011 to 2018 to show differences between years. (a) Mean acrylamide (ng g⁻¹) for each year on the natural log (to base e) scale and number of observations (n). (b) Least significant difference (LSD) values on 2119 degrees of freedom at the 5% (p < .05) level of significance. The value for a particular comparison of the means is given by reading along the appropriate row and up the appropriate column

(a)
Year	Mean (on loge scale)	n
2011	5.929	223
2012	5.987	249
2013	5.762	221
2014	5.98	265
2015	6.175	254
2016	5.947	280
2017	5.684	337
2018	5.85	295
(b)
LSDs (5%, 2119 df)
2011	*
2012	0.1832	*
2013	0.1886	0.1837	*
2014	0.1806	0.1754	0.181	*
2015	0.1824	0.1772	0.1828	0.1745	*
2016	0.1784	0.1731	0.1788	0.1703	0.1722	*
2017	0.1716	0.1661	0.172	0.1632	0.1651	0.1607	*
2018	0.1764	0.171	0.1768	0.1682	0.1701	0.1658	0.1585	*
	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018

Figure 2. (a) Proportion (%) of samples of potato crisps containing more than 750 ng g⁻¹ acrylamide (the Benchmark Level set for potato crisps in Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 (European Commission 2017)) in European Snacks Association data for years 2002–2019. (b) Histogram of data on acrylamide in potato crisps (ng g⁻¹) provided by the European Snacks Association for 2019, showing frequencies of observations within 50 ng g⁻¹ bands. The Benchmark Level of 750 ng g⁻¹ set in Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 (European Commission 2017) is indicated. The percentage of observations greater than 750 ng g⁻¹ is shown

Table 4. Number of observations (n), mean (ng g⁻¹), standard error of mean (SE), 85%, 90% and 95% quantile (Q85, Q90 and Q95) values and proportion (%) of samples containing greater than 750 ng g⁻¹ for acrylamide in samples of potato crisps from Europe for each month. (a) Data from 2002 to 2019 provided by the European Snacks Association (ESA), compiled from data supplied by European manufacturers. (b) Data from 2011 to 2018 provided by the European Food Standards Agency (EFSA), compiled from data supplied by European Union Member States

(a)
Month	n	Mean	SE	Q85	Q90	Q95	% > 750
January	7639	464	3.9	730	863	1090	14.07
February	7578	473	4	760	906	1150	15.23
March	8956	477	4.1	750	880	1140	14.97
April	8930	459	3.7	723	850	1090	13.65
May	9523	482	4.4	762	920	1200	15.48
June	8015	426	3.8	672	810	1070	11.73
July	8082	312	2.9	480	581	769	5.13
August	7988	298	2.7	450	533	695	4.16
September	8498	321	2.8	480	582	760	5.14
October	8107	380	2.9	600	700	880	8.18
November	9026	424	3.3	670	790	1010	11.30
December	7362	431	3.5	683	796	980	11.76
(b)
Month	n	Mean	SE	Q85	Q90	Q95	% > 750
January	82	427	43.4	773	833	1048	15.85
February	181	454	33.8	727	865	1330	14.36
March	321	721	38.3	1244	1428	1926	31.78
April	170	576	43.9	1085	1277	1792	25.29
May	196	632	47.4	1024	1375	1857	27.04
June	158	557	62.2	1039	1292	2011	20.25
July	102	443	45.9	683	816	1161	10.78
August	99	504	47.6	934	1189	1599	21.21
September	162	465	42.7	879	1041	1497	20.99
October	132	500	38.7	985	1219	1492	20.45
November	249	608	32.8	1064	1265	1712	29.32
December	47	599	68.9	1100	1353	1581	34.04

Table 5. Analysis of variance of European Snacks Association acrylamide data for samples of potato crisps from Europe for 2002 to 2019 to show differences between months. (a) Mean acrylamide (ng g⁻¹) for each month on the natural log (to base e) scale and number of observations (n). (b) Least significant difference (LSD) values on 99692 degrees of freedom at the 5% (p < .05) level of significance. The value for a particular comparison of the means is given by reading along the appropriate row and up the appropriate column

(a)
Month	Mean (on loge scale)	n
January	5.9273	7639
February	5.9453	7578
March	5.9416	8956
April	5.9117	8930
May	5.9307	9523
June	5.8119	8015
July	5.5216	8082
August	5.4954	7988
September	5.5669	8498
October	5.7397	8107
November	5.8428	9026
December	5.8663	7362
(b)
LSDs (5%, 99692 df)
January	*
February	0.02058	*
March	0.01977	0.01982	*
April	0.01979	0.01983	0.01899	*
May	0.01950	0.01954	0.01869	0.0187	*
June	0.02030	0.02034	0.01952	0.01953	0.01924	*
July	0.02026	0.0203	0.01948	0.01949	0.0192	0.02001
August	0.02032	0.02036	0.01954	0.01955	0.01926	0.02007
September	0.02002	0.02006	0.01923	0.01924	0.01895	0.01977
October	0.02024	0.02029	0.01946	0.01948	0.01919	0.02000
November	0.01974	0.01978	0.01894	0.01895	0.01865	0.01949
December	0.02073	0.02078	0.01997	0.01999	0.0197	0.02049
	January	February	March	April	May	June
LSDs (5%, 99692 df)
July	*
August	0.02003	*
September	0.01973	0.01979	*
October	0.01996	0.02001	0.01971	*
November	0.01944	0.01950	0.01919	0.01943	*
December	0.02045	0.02051	0.02021	0.02044	0.01994	*
	July	August	September	October	November	December

Figure 3. Seasonality in acrylamide levels in samples of potato crisps from European Snacks Association data for years 2002–2019. (a) Mean acrylamide levels over time (2002–2019) with standard errors, plotted monthly. (b) Mean acrylamide levels per month over all years with standard errors and with trend in 85%, 90% and 95% quantiles. (c) Proportion of samples each month containing more than 750 ng g⁻¹ acrylamide (the Benchmark Level set for potato crisps in Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 (European Commission 2017)), over the period 2017–2019

Table 6. Analysis of variance of EFSA acrylamide data for potato crisps from 2011 to 2018 to show differences between months. (a) Mean acrylamide (ng g⁻¹) for each month on the natural log (to base e) scale and number of observations (n). (b) Least significant difference (LSD) values on 1887 degrees of freedom at the 5% (p < .05) level of significance. The value for a particular comparison of the means is given by reading along the appropriate row and up the appropriate column

(a)
Month	Mean (on loge scale)	n
January	5.684	82
February	5.757	181
March	6.203	321
April	5.905	170
May	6.014	196
June	5.654	158
July	5.743	102
August	5.756	99
September	5.623	162
October	5.829	132
November	6.025	249
December	6.021	47
(b)
LSDs (5%, 1887 df)
January	*
February	0.2602	*
March	0.2419	0.1817	*
April	0.2629	0.2088	0.1854	*
May	0.2571	0.2015	0.1772	0.2049	*
June	0.2661	0.2129	0.1900	0.2160	0.2090	*
July	0.2900	0.2420	0.2222	0.2449	0.2387	0.2483
August	0.2919	0.2444	0.2248	0.2472	0.2411	0.2506
September	0.2650	0.2114	0.1884	0.2147	0.2076	0.2186
October	0.2749	0.2238	0.2021	0.2268	0.2201	0.2305
November	0.2489	0.191	0.1651	0.1945	0.1867	0.1988
December	0.3577	0.3201	0.3053	0.3222	0.3175	0.3248
	January	February	March	April	May	June
LSDs (5%, 1887 df)
July	*
August	0.2758	*
September	0.2471	0.2494	*
October	0.2577	0.2599	0.2292	*
November	0.2298	0.2323	0.1973	0.2105	*
December	0.3447	0.3463	0.3239	0.3321	0.3109	*
	July	August	September	October	November	December

Table 7. Mean (ng g⁻¹), standard error of mean (SE), number of values (n), mean of log_e data, Q85, Q90, Q95, maximum value and proportion (%) of samples >750 ng g⁻¹ for acrylamide by type and year in samples of potato crisps from Europe 2002 to 2019

Ridge/wave
Year	Mean	SE	n	Mean loge	Q85	Q90	Q95	Max	% > 750
2002	751	90.9	40	6.346	1175	1530	2100	2500	40.0
2003	580	27.8	131	6.232	876	988	1128	2080	26.0
2004	656	29.5	283	6.3	1000	1234	1594	4450	26.5
2005	629	22.1	208	6.303	980	1087	1201	1780	30.3
2006	555	12.5	993	6.118	870	1000	1299	2830	21.1
2007	558	7.3	2739	6.123	867	996	1246	4710	21.0
2008	468	5.3	5206	5.893	770	900	1170	4300	15.6
2009	506	6.5	5420	5.888	895	1080	1440	6000	20.3
2010	439	4.8	8838	5.824	670	798	1060	12000	11.5
2011	344	2.8	9084	5.609	560	660	840	3090	6.9
2012	401	3.6	6850	5.791	620	746	960	4500	9.6
2013	429	4.7	4646	5.829	700	840	1100	2635	12.8
2014	395	3.9	4122	5.798	630	740	910	1800	9.2
2015	417	4.3	4929	5.835	640	759	990	2600	10.1
2016	394	4.3	5305	5.758	600	736	980	3200	9.4
2017	345	3.7	5246	5.628	527	614	826	4100	6.3
2018	332	2.9	6747	5.602	522	605	749	3600	4.9
2019	354	3.0	6500	5.686	560	662	817	3000	6.7
Thick cut
2002	*	*	*	*		*	*	*	*
2003	*	*	*	*		*	*	*	*
2004	*	*	*	*		*	*	*	*
2005	*	*	*	*		*	*	*	*
2006	1044	159.4	21	6.701	1740	2280	2745	2800	61.9
2007	1322	298.0	19	6.85	2220	2560	4415	5900	63.2
2008	701	75.4	47	6.287	1390	1500	1815	1900	31.9
2009	473	23.5	406	5.9	641	889	1300	4000	12.6
2010	383	15.7	514	5.71	592	656	856	3000	7.2
2011	483	10.6	939	5.963	788	939	1136	2400	17.1
2012	511	15.1	653	6.008	869	1062	1417	2150	18.2
2013	508	17.8	289	6.063	807	944	1118	2100	18.7
2014	387	13.2	410	5.789	595	685	829	2049	7.3
2015	401	30.7	91	5.817	584	675	1220	1510	7.7
2016	450	20.8	185	5.943	698	800	928	1680	11.4
2017	382	16.6	161	5.805	580	620	686	1550	4.3
2018	637	45.9	36	6.377	855	1074	1287	1410	22.2
2019	422	22.0	127	5.904	626	757	896	1600	10.2
Ridge/wave
2002	1010	790	2	6.445	2116	2274	2432	1800	50.0
2003	394	130.0	5	5.819	758	910	1063	910	20.0
2004	385	24.8	38	5.876	526	554	688	840	2.6
2005	544	74.4	22	6.121	986	1125	1300	1300	27.3
2006	663	29.9	137	6.361	1119	1190	1301	1960	30.7
2007	611	17.3	448	6.269	943	1087	1364	2500	23.7
2008	493	14.3	439	6.044	777	919	1100	2400	16.2
2009	471	11.9	667	5.982	728	850	1033	2800	13.6
2010	434	6.8	1619	5.918	640	720	918	3900	8.8
2011	364	5.6	2190	5.706	548	656	847	2700	6.9
2012	443	9.5	1153	5.877	740	881	1169	2520	14.5
2013	311	14.1	436	5.497	462	538	701	2550	4.6
2014	407	7.9	1178	5.811	680	787	980	1600	11.3
2015	441	8.2	1387	5.884	740	849	1050	2100	14.5
2016	461	8.7	1774	5.894	734	870	1200	3400	14.3
2017	408	6.5	1856	5.817	640	769	950	2900	10.7
2018	413	6.2	2146	5.815	672	779	978	2647	10.9
2019	406	4.9	3122	5.822	634	750	928	2841	9.9

*No data presentThe average LSD (5 %) for comparing means on the log_e scale = 0.1716 on 99654 degrees of freedom.

Figure 4. Overall mean acrylamide levels (ng g⁻¹) in samples of potato crisps of different types (standard, thick cut and ridge/wave) shown over years from 2002–2019, with standard errors

Table 8. Grouping of 25 European countries into geographic regions (north, south, east and west) that formed the basis of the regional analysis of acrylamide levels. Note that there were no observations from Estonia, Luxembourg, Malta or Slovenia in the dataset

North	South	East	West
Denmark	Cyprus	Bulgaria	Austria
Finland	Greece	Croatia	Belgium
Lithuania	Italy	Czech Republic	France
Latvia	Portugal	Hungary	Germany
Norway	Spain	Poland	Ireland
Sweden		Romania	Netherlands
			Switzerland
			United Kingdom

Table 9. Mean (ng g⁻¹), standard error of mean (SE), number of values (n), proportion (%) of samples with more than 750 ng g⁻¹ and mean of log_e data for acrylamide by region and year in samples of potato crisps from Europe, 2002 to 2019

Region	Year
		2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019
North	Mean	*	*	*	*	915	880	918	1118	953	878	987	718	512	596	586	534	367	310
	SE	*	*	*	*	61.9	59.5	44.9	53.8	54.0	45.6	41.6	43.0	15.7	13.7	12.0	15.8	9.3	7.7
	n	0	0	0	0	122	129	159	173	153	148	235	133	375	1021	1241	693	754	864
	% > 750	*	*	*	*	49.18	48.06	53.46	63.58	50.98	48.65	59.15	34.59	18.13	25.95	24.01	17.03	6.23	4.86
	Mean loge					6.528	6.565	6.630	6.816	6.621	6.581	6.734	6.370	6.080	6.147	6.160	6.079	5.713	5.546
South	Mean	*	*	*	*	*	462	565	525	416	305	417	326	326	400	421	406	458	497
	SE	*	*	*	*	*	88.0	21.1	10.3	4.6	4.0	7.0	9.4	8.3	8.9	10.4	8.5	7.2	7.3
	n	0	0	0	0	0	17	129	861	2585	2351	1578	560	472	645	725	710	1477	1511
	% > 750	*	*	*	*	*	11.76	19.38	18.35	7.93	3.06	9.32	6.25	4.03	7.75	12.28	8.45	11.51	15.75
	Mean loge						5.928	6.243	6.106	5.883	5.541	5.854	5.599	5.650	5.857	5.849	5.873	5.970	6.057
East	Mean	860	619	1134	*	1001	821	920	721	759	454	468	395	448	473	396	368	325	374
	SE	390.0	48.5	162.6	*	105.5	32.1	40.4	23.1	22.6	9.5	8.7	10.8	10.1	9.3	7.8	6.6	5.7	4.8
	n	2	35	25	0	36	262	291	758	1395	1430	989	569	706	966	1112	1289	1305	2047
	% > 750	50.00	31.43	64.00	*	47.22	43.89	48.11	32.45	28.32	12.80	14.46	7.73	12.89	13.56	7.19	6.67	4.90	6.69
	Mean loge	6.642	6.324	6.868		6.729	6.558	6.594	6.293	6.338	5.904	5.986	5.801	5.928	5.992	5.818	5.745	5.613	5.772
West	Mean	759	557	581	621	520	532	430	437	365	347	382	431	386	366	363	327	328	346
	SE	94.6	32.7	23.9	21.3	9.8	6.6	4.5	6.0	3.5	2.8	3.6	5.1	3.9	3.9	4.6	3.6	3.4	3.4
	n	40	101	296	230	993	2798	5113	4701	6838	8284	5854	4109	4157	3775	4186	4571	5293	5327
	% > 750	40.00	23.76	20.27	30.00	18.93	18.41	12.69	15.49	7.60	7.42	8.80	13.21	8.80	6.91	7.38	5.91	5.46	6.36
	Mean loge	6.336	6.179	6.197	6.286	6.092	6.091	5.838	5.763	5.693	5.626	5.745	5.828	5.770	5.724	5.673	5.572	5.573	5.655

*No data present.Average LSD (5 %) for comparing means on the log_e scale = 0.1266 on 99642 degrees of freedom.

Figure 5. Overall mean acrylamide levels (ng g⁻¹) in samples of potato crisps in the ESA dataset from different regions of Europe (north, south, east and west; Table 9), shown over years from 2002–2019, with standard errors

Figure 6. Proportion (%) of samples in the ESA dataset from different regions of Europe (north, south, east and west; Table 9) with more than 750 ng g⁻¹ acrylamide over years from 2007 (the first year in which there was data from all four regions) to 2019

Table 10. Proportion (%) of samples of potato crisps with more than 750 ng g⁻¹ acrylamide for each month for the period 2017 to 2019

Month	North	South	East	West
January	5.64	17.60	11.60	8.44
February	12.94	13.10	9.35	8.87
March	8.42	11.86	7.90	7.08
April	11.48	11.49	3.67	6.42
May	14.41	12.36	5.68	6.23
June	6.83	11.01	3.35	7.95
July	5.13	9.09	1.85	3.33
August	5.15	6.86	0.47	2.11
September	4.40	14.47	4.40	2.30
October	8.96	15.15	7.08	4.15
November	16.14	15.79	11.75	7.75
December	5.11	14.40	9.14	7.34

Figure 7. Proportion (%) of samples in the ESA dataset with more than 750 ng g⁻¹ acrylamide each month for geographic regions of Europe over periods. (a) 2017–2019. (b) 2011–2016 (Powers et al. 2017)

Figure 8. Correlation between yearly means for ESA and EFSA data (r = 0.458, n = 8, p = .254, F-test). The pairs of means are plotted with standard errors and labelled by year

European Commission. 2017. Establishing mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in food. Brussels (Belgium):European Commission.

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Powers SJ, Mottram DS, Curtis A, Halford NG. 2017. Acrylamide levels in potato crisps in Europe from 2002 to 2016. Food Addit Contam Part A. 34:2085–2100. doi:10.1080/19440049.2017.1379101.

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