The influence of emulsion drying on the fatty acid composition, bioactive compounds content and oxidative stability of encapsulated bio-oils

Figures & data

Table 1. Characteristics of oils used to prepare powders.

Tabla 1. Características de los aceites utilizados para preparar polvos.

Compounds	Oil
	Evening primrose	Borage	Blueweed
Fatty acid composition [%]
Palmitic acid (C16:0)	6.03 ± 0.35	11.01 ± 0.27	9.00 ± 0.78
Stearic acid (C18:0)	1.28 ± 0.21	4.05 ± 0.18	5.28 ± 0.23
Oleic acid (C18:1n-9)	4.88 ± 0.11	17.70 ± 0.28	15.26 ± 0.57
Linoleic acid (C18:2)	79.45 ± 0.04	38.58 ± 0.56	16.04 ± 0.32
γ-Linolenic acid (C18:3 n-6)	8.37 ± 0.30	20.09 ± 0.37	9.85 ± 0.40
α-Linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3)	n.d.	n.d.	33.17 ± 0.10
Stearidonic acid (C18:4n-3)	n.d.	n.d.	11.42 ± 1.61
Eicosenoic acid (C20:1)	n.d.	3.94 ± 0.08	n.d.
Behenic acid (C22:1)	n.d.	3.00 ± 0.06	n.d.
Nervonic acid (C24:1 n-9)	n.d.	1.65 ± 0.40	n.d.
ƩSFA	7.31 ± 0.15	15.06 ± 0.08	14.27 ± 1.02
ƩMUFA	4.88 ± 0.11	26.28 ± 0.28	15.26 ± 0.57
ƩPUFA	87.82 ± 0.26	58.67 ± 0.19	70.48 ± 1.59
Tocopherols [mg/100 g of oil]
α-tocopherol	23.54 ± 1.01	n.d.	5.41 ± 0.24
β-tocopherol + γ-tocopherol	42.11 ± 3.85	13.16 ± 0.26	43.25 ± 1.21
δ-tocopherol	0.48 ± 0.01	112.65 ± 3.06	n.d.
Total tocopherols	66.12 ± 2.83	125.81 ± 3.32	48.66 ± 1.45
Sterols [mg/100 g of oil]
Δ5-avenasterol	18.02 ± 0.21	484.52 ± 5.07	410.63 ± 7.54
Campesterol	13.08 ± 0.58	774.41 ± 6.94	818.59 ± 12.67
5,23-stigmastadienol	244.97 ± 3.29	52.20 ± 0.76	115.71 ± 1.75
β-Sitosterol	811.98 ± 12.29	760.88 ± 7.80	737.00 ± 10.81
Sitostanol	32.84 ± 0.67	n.d.	n.d.
Stigmasterol	n.d.	0.43 ± 0.05	0.27 ± 0.04
Δ7-avenasterol	268.59 ± 3.47	556.12 ± 5.48	734.37 ± 11.52
Lupeol + gramisterol	n.d.	136.79 ± 3.07	119.16 ± 1.72
Cycloartenol	n.d.	310.16 ± 3.56	53.84 ± 0.69
24-methelenecycloartanol	n.d.	30.65 ± 0.68	27.82 ± 0.15
Cirostadeinol	n.d.	87.24 ± 0.93	37.77 ± 0.65
Δ7-sitosterol	55.28 ± 0.73	n.d.	n.d.
Total sterols	1444.75 ± 21.24	3192.96 ± 34.29	3054.88 ± 47.50

n.d. – not detected.

SFA – saturated fatty acids, MUFA – monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA – polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Values are mean ± SD (n = 3).

n.d. – no detectado.

SFA – ácidos grasos saturados, MUFA – ácidos grasos monoinsaturados, PUFA – ácidos grasos poliinsaturados.

Los valores son medias ± DE (n = 3)

Table 2. Surface oil, total oil and encapsulation efficiency [%].

Tabla 2. Aceite superficial, aceite total y eficiencia de encapsulación [%].

Encapsulated oil type	Surface oil	Total oil	Encapsulation efficiency
EP-SDEO	3.98 ± 0.48^a	26.86 ± 1.19^a	85.22 ± 1.14^a
EP-FDEO	11.15 ± 0.44^b	26.02 ± 0.44^a	57.12 ± 2.40^b
BO-SDEO	5.56 ± 0.53^a	28.82 ± 1.09^a	80.74 ± 1.11^a
BO-FDEO	8.46 ± 0.44^b	22.88 ± 0.20^b	63.02 ± 2.26^b
BW-SDEO	5.50 ± 0.26^a	25.89 ± 1.29^a	78.76 ± 0.07^a
BW-FDEO	13.93 ± 0.58^b	30.11 ± 0.54^b	53.75 ± 1.11^b

Abbreviations: EP – evening primrose, BO – borage, BW – blueweed, SD – spray-dried, FD – freeze-dried, EO – encapsulated oil.

Mean values in lines denoted by the same letter for each oil type separately do not differ statistically significantly at p ≤ 0.05 (Tukey’s test).

Values are mean ± SD (n = 3).

Abreviaturas: EP – onagra, BO – borraja, BW – hierba azul, SD – secado por atomización, FD – liofilizado, EO – aceite encapsulado.

Los valores medios en una misma fila señalados por la misma letra para cada tipo de aceite por separado no difieren estadísticamente de manera significativa en p ≤ 0.05 (prueba de Tukey).

Los valores son la media ± DE (n = 3).

Table 3. Colour of encapsulated oils.

Tabla 3. Color de los aceites encapsulados.

Encapsulated oil type	Colour parameter
	L* [%]	a* [-]	b* [-]
EP-SDEO	99.11 ± 0.01^a	−4.46 ± 0.02^a	6.37 ± 0.28^a
EP-FDEO	96.14 ± 0.14^b	−6.27 ± 0.23^b	12.37 ± 0.38^b
BO-SDEO	98.80 ± 0.21^a	−4.98 ± 0.12^a	7.11 ± 0.17^a
BO-FDEO	95.92 ± 0.11^b	−6.56 ± 0.40^b	13.22 ± 0.91^b
BW-SDEO	99.01 ± 0.12^a	−4.86 ± 0.16^a	7.40 ± 0.21^a
BW-FDEO	97.05 ± 0.43^b	−5.92 ± 0.08^b	11.71 ± 0.26^b

Abbreviations: EP – evening primrose, BO – borage, BW – blueweed, SD – spray-dried, FD – freeze-dried, EO – encapsulated oil.

Mean values in lines denoted by the same letter for each oil type separately do not differ statistically significantly at p ≤ 0.05 (Tukey’s test).

Values are mean ± SD (n = 20).

Abreviaturas: EP – onagra, BO – borraja, BW – hierba azul, SD – secado por atomización, FD – liofilizado, EO – aceite encapsulado.

Los valores medios en una misma fila señalados por la misma letra para cada tipo de aceite por separado no difieren estadísticamente de manera significativa en p ≤ 0.05 (prueba de Tukey).

Los valores son la media ± DE (n = 3).

Figure 1. SEM images of encapsulated oils. Evening primrose spray-dried encapsulated oil (1a), evening primrose freeze-dried encapsulated oil (1b), Borage spray-dried encapsulated oil (2a), Borage freeze-dried encapsulated oil (2b), blueweed spray-dried encapsulated oil (3a), blueweed freeze-dried encapsulated oil (3b).

Figura 1. Imágenes SEM de aceites encapsulados. Aceite de onagra encapsulado y secado por atomización (1a), Aceite de onagra encapsulado y liofilizado (1b), Aceite de borraja encapsulado y secado por atomización (2a), Aceite de borraja encapsulado y liofilizado (2b), Aceite de hierba azul encapsulado y secado por atomización (3a), Aceite de hierba azul encapsulado y liofilizado (3b).

Table 4. Fatty acid composition of encapsulated oils [%].

Tabla 4. Composición de ácidos grasos de aceites encapsulados [%].

Fatty acids	Encapsulated oil type
	EP-SDEO	EP-FDEO	BO-SDEO	BO-FDEO	BW-SDEO	BW-FDEO
Palmitic acid (C16:0)	6.83 ± 0.12^a	6.51 ± 0.06^a	12.42 ± 0.45^a	12.63 ± 0.02^a	9.59 ± 0.13^a	10.06 ± 0.41^b
Stearic acid (C18:0)	1.93 ± 0.07^a	1.30 ± 0.02^b	4.35 ± 0.04^a	4.76 ± 0.11^b	5.20 ± 0.32^a	5.39 ± 0.30^b
Oleic acid (C18:1n-9)	7.77 ± 0.18^a	7.20 ± 0.01^b	18.72 ± 0.06^a	18.64 ± 0.32^a	17.63 ± 0.28^a	16.92 ± 0.36^b
Linoleic acid (C18:2)	74.72 ± 0.43^a	77.02 ± 0.01^b	37.70 ± 0.15^a	36.73 ± 0.03^b	16.13 ± 0.26^a	16.53 ± 0.02^b
γ-Linolenic acid (C18:3 n-6)	8.75 ± 0.03^a	7.97 ± 0.08^b	17.58 ± 0.59^a	17.25 ± 0.16^a	8.84 ± 0.80^a	8.16 ± 0.04^b
α-Linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3)	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	31.93 ± 0.01^a	32.05 ± 0.38^b
Stearidonic acid (C18:4n-3)	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	10.68 ± 0.57^a	10.89 ± 0.41^a
Eicosenoic acid (C20:1)	n.d.	n.d.	4.03 ± 0.11^a	4.11 ± 0.03^a	n.d.	n.d.
Behenic acid (C22:1)	n.d.	n.d.	3.16 ± 0.13^a	3.34 ± 0.30^a	n.d.	n.d.
Nervonic acid (C24:1 n-9)	n.d.	n.d.	2.04 ± 0.03^a	2.55 ± 0.25^b	n.d.	n.d.
ƩSFA	8.76 ± 0.19^a	7.81 ± 0.06^b	16.77 ± 0.49^a	17.39 ± 0.13^b	14.79 ± 0.20^a	15.45 ± 0.41^b
ƩMUFA	7.77 ± 0.18^a	7.20 ± 0.01^b	27.95 ± 0.05^a	28.63 ± 0.26^b	17.63 ± 0.28^a	16.92 ± 0.36^b
ƩPUFA	83.47 ± 0.37^a	84.99 ± 0.07^b	55.28 ± 0.45^a	53.98 ± 0.13^b	67.58 ± 0.48^a	67.63 ± 0.77^b

Abbreviations: EP – evening primrose, BO – borage, BW – blueweed, SD – spray-dried, FD – freeze-dried, EO – encapsulated oil, SFA – saturated fatty acids, MUFA – monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA – polyunsaturated fatty acids, n.d. – not detected.

Mean values in columns denoted by the same letter for each oil type separately do not differ statistically significantly at p ≤ 0.05 (Tukey’s test).

Values are mean ± SD (n = 3).

Abreviaturas: EP – onagra, BO – borraja, BW – hierba azul, SD – secado por aspersión, FD – liofilizado, EO – aceite encapsulado, SFA – ácidos grasos saturados, MUFA – ácidos grasos monoinsaturados, PUFA – ácidos grasos poliinsaturados, n.d. – no detectado.

Los valores medios en una misma columna señalados por la misma letra para cada tipo de aceite por separado no difieren estadísticamente de manera significativa en p ≤ 0.05 (prueba de Tukey).

Los valores son la media ± DE (n = 3).

Table 5. Content of tocopherols and sterols in encapsulated oils [mg/100 g of oil].

Tabla 5. Contenido de tocoferoles y esteroles en aceites encapsulados [mg/100 g de aceite].

Compound	Encapsulated oil type
	EP-SDEO	EP-FDEO	BO-SDEO	BO-FDEO	BW-SDEO	BW-FDEO
Tocopherols
α-tocopherol	11.99 ± 0.55^a	22.17 ± 0.57^b	n.d.	n.d.	5.17 ± 0.25^a	3.13 ± 0.09^b
β-tocopherol + γ-tocopherol	14.86 ± 1.10^a	41.11 ± 0.57^b	11.22 ± 0.72^a	12.01 ± 1.01^a	35.74 ± 0.09^a	43.09 ± 0.53^b
δ-tocopherol	n.d.	0.35 ± 0.12	102.60 ± 5.15^a	112.38 ± 0.14^b	n.d.	n.d.
Total tocopherols	26.85 ± 1.65^a	63.63 ± 1.02^b	113.82 ± 4.43^a	124.39 ± 0.87^b	40.91 ± 0.34^a	46.21 ± 0.62^b
Sterols
Δ5-avenasterol	0.00 ± 0.00^a	1.06 ± 0.02^b	42.26 ± 0.76^a	83.71 ± 2.53^b	32.73 ± 0.44^a	23.70 ± 1.99^b
Campesterol	6.11 ± 0.02^a	13.96 ± 0.30^b	79.71 ± 1.32^a	142.68 ± 3.14^b	89.18 ± 1.03^a	87.08 ± 6.22^a
5,23-stigmastadienol	n.d.	n.d.	2.37 ± 0.02^a	7.28 ± 0.05^b	4.71 ± 0.07^a	6.18 ± 0.51^b
β-Sitosterol	67.77 ± 0.25^a	158.14 ± 2.80^b	70.18 ± 1.02^a	163.57 ± 5.00^b	78.23 ± 1.03^a	159.15 ± 7.24^b
Δ7-avenasterol	4.26 ± 0.02^a	10.26 ± 0.19^b	35.51 ± 0.67^a	104.17 ± 3.25^b	40.47 ± 0.99^a	73.09 ± 4.50^b
lupeol + gramisterol	n.d.	n.d.	8.39 ± 0.21^a	8.83 ± 0.28^a	3.14 ± 0.11^a	6.25 ± 0.09^b
Cycloartenol	n.d.	n.d.	15.33 ± 1.90^a	35.57 ± 1.54^b	2.52 ± 0.08^a	0.00 ± 0.00^b
24-methelenecycloartanol	n.d.	n.d.	2.01 ± 0.01^a	8.64 ± 0.12^b	1.93 ± 0.02^a	12.11 ± 0.82^b
Cirostadeinol	n.d.	n.d.	7.45 ± 0.15^a	10.82 ± 0.45^b	1.81 ± 0.02^a	5.07 ± 0.47^b
Others	1.58 ± 0.00^a	2.49 ± 0.00^b	n.d.	n.d.	3.52 ± 0.00^a	5.55 ± 0.00^b
Total sterols	79.73 ± 0.29^a	185.91 ± 3.31^b	263.22 ± 6.07^a	565.27 ± 16.35^b	258.23 ± 3.79^a	378.19 ± 21.84^b

Abbreviations: EP – evening primrose, BO – borage, BW – blueweed, SD – spray-dried, FD – freeze-dried, EO – encapsulated oil, n.d. – not detected.

Mean values in columns denoted by the same letter for each oil type separately do not differ statistically significantly at p ≤ 0.05 (Tukey’s test).

Values are mean ± SD (n = 3).

Abreviaturas: EP – onagra, BO – borraja, BW – alga azul, SD – secado por aspersión, FD – liofilizado, EO – aceite encapsulado, n.d. – no detectado.

Los valores medios en una misma columna señalados por la misma letra para cada tipo de aceite por separado no difieren estadísticamente de manera significativa en p ≤ 0.05 (prueba de Tukey).

Los valores son la media ± DE (n = 3).

Figure 2. Oxidative stability index of crude and encapsulated oils.

Figura 2. Índice de estabilidad oxidativa de aceites crudos y encapsulados.