Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis

Figures & data

Figure 1. Study flow diagram

Table 1. Study characteristics

Study	N	Country	Intervention 1	Intervention 2	Intervention 3	Intervention 4	Population	Trauma type	% Female	% Unemployed	% University educated
Acarturk et al. (2016)	98	Turkey/Syria	EMDR	WL			Refugees	War/Persecution	74	Unknown	4
Adenauer et al. (2011)	34	Germany	NET (CBT-T)	WL			Refugees	War/Persecution	44	Unknown	Unknown
Ahmadi, Hazrati, Ahmadizadeh, and Noohi (2015)	48	Iran	EMDR	REM desensitization	WL		Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	Unknown	33.3
Akbarian et al. (2015)	40	Iran	Group CBT-T	MC/RA			General Population	Various	79	Unknown	Unknown
Asukai, Saito, Tsuruta, Kishimoto, and Nishikawa (2010)	24	Japan	PE (CBT-T)	TAU			General Population	Various	88	Unknown	Unknown
Basoglu, Şalcıoğlu, Livanou, Kalender, and Acar (2005)	59	Turkey	Single-session CBT-T	WL			General Population	Earthquake	85	Unknown	5.1
Basoglu, Salcioglu, and Livanou (2007)	31	Turkey	Single-session CBT-T	MC/RA			General Population	Earthquake	93	Unknown	10
Beck, Coffey, Foy, Keane, and Blanchard (2009)	44	USA	Group CBT-T	MC/RA			General Population	Road Traffic Accident	82	54	Unknown
Bichescu, Neuner, Schauer, and Elbert (2007)	18	Romania	NET (CBT-T)	Psychoeducation			General Population	Political detainment	94	0%	72
Blanchard et al. (2003)	98	USA	CBT-T	SC	WL		General Population	Road Traffic Accident	73	Unknown	Unknown
Bradshaw, McDonald, Grace, Detwiler, and Austin (2014)	10	Canada	OEI	WL			General Population	Various	70	0	Unknown
Brom, Kleber, and Defares (1989)	83	Netherlands	CBT-T	Psychodynamic therapy	WL		General Population	Various	79	49	Unknown
Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang, and Nixon (2003)	58	Australia	CBT-T	SC			General Population	Various	52	Unknown	Unknown
Bryant et al. (2011)	28	Thailand	CBT-T	SC			General Population	Terrorist Attack	96	84%	Unknown
Buhmann, Nordentoft, Ekstroem, Carlsson, and Mortensen (2016)	138	Denmark	CBT-T	WL			Refugees	Organized Violence	41	Unknown	Unknown
Butollo, Karl, König, and Rosner (2016)	148	Germany	CPT (CBT-T)	DET			General Population	Various	66	Unknown	Unknown
Capezzani et al. (2013)	21	Italy	EMDR	CBT-T			General Population	Cancer	90	Unknown	Unknown
Carletto et al. (2016)	50	Italy	EMDR	Relaxation training			General Population	Multiple Sclerosis	81	Unknown	Unknown
Carlson, Chemtob, Rusnak, Hedlund, and Muraoka (1998)	35	USA	EMDR	Relaxation training	TAU		Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	62	Unknown
Castillo et al. (2016)	86	USA	Group CBT-T	WL			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	100	44%	Unknown
Chard (2005)	71	USA	CPT (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Child Sexual Abuse	100	Unknown	Unknown
Cloitre, Koenen, Cohen, and Han (2002)	58	USA	CBT-T	WL			General Population	Child Abuse	100	24%	52
Cloitre et al. (2010)	71	USA	CBT-T	CBT without a trauma focus			General Population	Child Abuse	100	31%	Unknown
Devilly, Spence, and Rapee (1998)	35	Australia	EMDR	TAU			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	Unknown	Unknown
Devilly and Spence (1999)	32	Australia	EMDR	CBT-T			General Population	Various	100	Unknown	Unknown
Dorrepaal et al. (2012)	71	Netherlands	Group Stabilizing Treatment	TAU			General Population	Child Abuse	Unknown	83%	Unknown
Duffy, Gillespie, and Clark (2007)	58	UK	CT (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Various	40	Unknown	Unknown
Dunne, Kenardy, and Sterling (2012)	26	Australia	CBT-T	WL			General Population	Road Traffic Accident	50	31%	73
Echeburua, De Corral, Zubizarreta, and Sarasua (1997)	20	Spain	CBT-T	Relaxation training			General Population	Child Abuse or Adult RaPE (CBT-T)	100	Unknown	20
Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, and Fennell (2005)	28	UK	CT (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Various	50	25%	35
Ehlers et al. (2003)	57	UK	CT (CBT-T)	MC/RA			General Population	Road Traffic Accident	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Ehlers et al. (2014)	91	UK	CT (CBT-T)	SC	WL		General Population	Various	58.7	23	26
Falsetti, Resnick, and Davis (2008)	60	USA	Group CBT-T	WL			General Population	Various	100	Unknown	Unknown
Fecteau and Nicki (1999)	20	Canada	CBT-T	WL			General Population	Road Traffic Accident	70	Unknown	Unknown
Feske (2008)	21	USA	PE (CBT-T)	TAU			General Population	Various	100	29%	90%
Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdock (1991)	45	USA	PE (CBT-T)	CBT without a trauma focus	Supportive counselling	WL	General Population	Sexual Assault	100	Unknown	Unknown
Foa et al. (1999)	66	USA	PE (CBT-T)	CBT without a trauma focus	WL		General Population	Assault/Sexual assault	100	38%	41%
Foa et al. (2005)	179	USA	PE (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Assault	100	17%	34%
Foa et al. (2018)	256	USA	Spaced PE (CBT-T)	PCT	MC/RA		Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	12	100%	66%
Fonzo et al. (2017)	66	USA	PE (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Various	65	Unknown	Unknown
Forbes et al. (2012)	59	Australia	CPT (CBT-T)	TAU			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	4	36%	Unknown
Ford, Steinberg, and Zhang (2011)	146	USA	CBT without a trauma focus	PCT	WL		General Population	Various	100	Unknown	22%
Ford, Chang, Levine, and Zhang (2013)	80	USA	Group CBT-T	Group supportive counselling			Incarcerated Women	Various	100	Unknown	Unknown
Galovski, Blain, Mott, Elwood, and Houle (2012)	100	USA	CPT (CBT-T)	MC/RA			General Population	Various	69	Unknown	Unknown
Gamito et al. (2010)	10	Portugal	VRE (CBT-T)	Control exposure	WL		Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	Unknown	Unknown
Gersons, Carlier, Lamberts, and Van der Kolk (2000)	42	Netherlands	BEP (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Various	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Gray, Budden-Potts, and Bourke (2017)	74	USA	RTM (CBT-T)	WL			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	Unknown	Unknown
Hensel-Dittmann et al. (2011)	28	Germany	NET (CBT-T)	CBT without a trauma focus			Asylum Seekers	Organized Violence	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Hinton et al. (2005)	40	USA	CBT-T	WL			Refugees	Genocide	60	Unknown	Unknown
Hinton, Hofmann, Rivera, Otto, and Pollack (2011)	24	USA	Group CBT-T	WL			General Population	Various	100	Unknown	Unknown
Hogberg et al. (2007)	24	Sweden	EMDR	WL			General Population	Various	38	Unknown	Unknown
Hollifield, Sinclair-Lian, Warner, and Hammerschlag (2007)	55	USA	Group trauma-focused CBT	WL			General Population	Various	68	Unknown	40%
Ironson, Freund, Strauss, and Williams (2002)	22	USA	EMDR	PE (CBT-T)			General Population	Various	77	Unknown	Unknown
Ivarsson et al. (2014)	62	Sweden	I-CBT	WL			General Population	Various	82	8%	65%
Jacob, Neuner, Maedl, Schaal, and Elbert (2014)	76	Rwanda	NET (CBT-T)	WL			Genocide Survivors	Genocide	92	Unknown	Unknown
Jensen (1994)	25	USA	EMDR	WL			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	68	Unknown
Johnson, Zlotnick, and Perez (2011)	70	USA	CBT without a trauma focus	TAU			General Population	Intimate Partner Violence	100	73	7%
Johnson, Johnson, Perez, Palmieri, and Zlotnick (2016)	60	USA	CBT without a trauma focus	TAU			General Population	Intimate Partner Violence	100	77	5%
Karatzias et al. (2011)	46	UK	EMDR	EFT			General Population	Various	57	37	47%
Keane, Fairbank, Caddell, and Zimering (1989)	24	USA	CBT-T	WL			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	Unknown	Unknown
Krupnick et al. (2008)	48	USA	Group IPT	WL			General Population	Interpersonal Trauma	100	80	13%
Kubany, Hill, and Owens (2003)	37	USA	CBT-T	WL			General Population	Domestic Abuse	100	Unknown	Unknown
Kubany et al. (2004)	107	USA	CBT-T	WL			General Population	Domestic Abuse	100	Unknown	Unknown
Laugharne et al. (2016)	20	Australia	EMDR	PE (CBT-T)			General Population	Various	70	Unknown	Unknown
Lee, Gavriel, Drummond, Richards, and Greenwald (2002)	24	Australia	CBT-T	EMDR			General Population	Various	46	Unknown	Unknown
Lewis et al. (2017)	42	UK	I-CBT	WL			General Population	Various	57	19	62%
Littleton, Grills, Kline, Schoemann, & Dodd (2016)	87	USA	I-CBT	I-Psychoeducation			General Population	Rape	100	Unknown	Unknown
Litz, Engel, Bryant, and Papa (2007)	45	USA	I-CBT	I-SC			Military Personnel/Veterans	Terrorism/Military Trauma	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Marcus, Marquis, and Sakai (1997)	67	USA	EMDR	TAU			General Population	Various	79	Unknown	Unknown
Markowitz et al. (2015)	110	USA	IPT	PE (CBT-T)	Relaxation Therapy		General Population	Various	70	21	Unknown
Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, and Thrasher (1998)	87	UK	PE (CBT-T)	Cognitive restructuring	PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T)(CBT-T)and Cognitive Restructuring	Relaxation without PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T)(CBT-T)or CR	General Population	Various	36	54	Unknown
McDonagh et al. (2005)	74	USA	PE (CBT-T)	PCT	WL		General Population	Child Sexual Abuse	100	17	Unknown
McLay et al. (2011)	20	USA	VRE (CBT-T)	TAU			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	5	Unknown	Unknown
McLay et al. (2017)	81	USA	VRE (CBT-T)	Control exposure therapy			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	4	Unclear	Unclear
Monson et al. (2012)	20	USA	Couples CBT-T	WL			General Population	Various	25	40	Unknown
Monson et al. (2006)	60	USA	CPT (CBT-T)	WL			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	10	Unknown	Unknown
Morath et al. (2014)	38	Germany	NET (CBT-T)	WL			Refugees	Organized Violoence	32	Unknown	Unknown
Mueser et al. (2008)	108	USA	CBT-T	TAU			General Population	Various	79	Unknown	Unknown
Nacasch et al. (2011)	30	Israel	PE (CBT-T)	TAU			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	Unknown	63	Unknown
Neuner et al. (2010)	32	Germany	NET (CBT-T)	TAU			Refugees	Torture	31	Unknown	Unknown
Neuner et al. (2008)	277	Uganda	NET (CBT-T)	SC	Monitoring		Refugees	War	51	49	Unknown
Neuner, Schauer, Klaschik, Karunakara, and Elbert (2004)	43	Uganda	NET (CBT-T)	SC	Psychoeducation		Refugees	War	60	28	Unknown
Nijdam, Gersons, Reitsma, de Jongh, and Olff (2012)	140	Netherlands	BEP (CBT-T)	EMDR			General Population	Vaious	56	Unknown	30
Pacella et al. (2012)	66	USA	PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T)	MC/RA			General Population	HIV Diagnosis	37	Unknown	Unknown
Paunovic (2011)	29	Sweden	CBT-T	WL			General Population	Crime	63	74	11
Peniston and Kulkosky (1991)	29	USA	CBT-T	TAU			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Power et al. (2002)	105	UK	EMDR	CBT-T	WL		General Population	Various	42	Unknown	Unknown
Rauch et al. (2015)	36	USA	PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T)	PCT			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	9	Unknown	Unknown
Ready, Gerardi, Backscheider, Mascaro, and Rothbaum (2010)	11	USA	VRE (CBT-T)	PCT			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Reger et al. (2016)	162	USA	VRE (CBT-T)	PE (CBT-T)	WL		Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	4	Active duty	7
Resick et al. (2015)	108	USA	Group CBT-T	Group PCT			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	8	0	8
Resick, Nishith, Weaver, Astin, and Feuer (2002)	171	USA	CPT (CBT-T) (CBT-T)	PE (CBT-T)	Minimal Attention		General Population	Rape	100	Unknown	Unknown
Resick et al. (2017)	268	USA	CPT (CBT-T) (CBT-T)	Group CBT-T			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	9	100	19
Rothbaum (1997)	18	USA	EMDR	WL			General Population	Sexual Assault	100	19	43
Rothbaum, Astin, and Marsteller (2005)	60	USA	PE (CBT-T)	EMDR	WL		General Population	Rape	100	Unknown	Unknown
Sautter, Glynn, Cretu, Senturk, and Vaught (2015)	57	USA	Couples CBT without a trauma focus	Couples psychoeducation			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	1.75	12	75
Scheck, Schaeffer, and Gillette (1998)	60	USA	EMDR	SC			General Population	Various	100	Unknown	Unknown
Schnurr et al. (2003)	360	USA	Group CBT-T	Group PCT			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	0	51	Unknown
Schnurr et al. (2007)	284	USA	PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T)	Group PCT			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	100	38	Unknown
Schnyder, Müller, Maercker, and Wittmann (2011)	30	Switzerland	BEP (CBT-T)	MC/RA			General Population	Various	46.7	Unknown	Unknown
Sloan, Marx, Bovin, Feinstein, and Gallagher (2012)	46	USA	WET	WL			General Population	Road Traffic Accident	Unclear	78	41
Sloan, Marx, Lee, and Resick (2018)	126	USA	WET	CPT (CBT-T)			General Population	Various	49	Unknown	13
Spence et al. (2011)	42	Australia	I-CBT	WL			General Population	Various	81	41	Not Clear
Stenmark, Catani, Neuner, Elbert, and Holen (2013)	81	Norway	NET (CBT-T)	TAU			Refugees	Various	31	Unknown	25
Suris, Link-Malcolm, Chard, Ahn, and North (2013)	86	USA	CPT (CBT-T)	PCT			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Sexual Trauma	85	43	16
Taylor et al. (2003)	60	USA	PE (CBT-T)	Relaxation therapy	EMDR		General Population	Various	75	13	Unknown
Tylee, Gray, Glatt, and Bourke (2017)	30	USA	RTM (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Military Trauma	0	Unknown	Unknown
Vaughan et al. (1994)	36	Australia	CBT-T	Relaxation training	EMDR		General Population	Various	64	Unknown	Unknown
Wells, Walton, Lovell, and Proctor (2015)	32	UK	PE (CBT-T)	CBT without a trauma focus	WL		General Population	Various	38	6	Unknown
Wells and Sembi (2004)	20	UK	CBT without a trauma focus	WL			General Population	Various	55	Unknown	Unknown
Yehuda et al. (2014)	52	USA	PE (CBT-T)	MC/RA			Military Personnel/Veterans	Military Trauma	Unclear	Unknown	Unknown
Zang, Hunt, and Cox (2014)	20	China	NET (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Earthquake	90	Unknown	Unknown
Zang, Hunt, and Cox (2013)	22	China	NET (CBT-T)	WL			General Population	Earthquake	77	Unknown	Unknown
Zlotnick et al. (1997)	48	USA	Group CBT-T	WL			General Population	Child Sexual Abuse	100	Unknown	33

BEP, brief eclectic psychotherapy; NET, narrative exposure therapy; CBT, cognitive behavioural therapy; OEI, observed and experimental integration; CBT-T, cognitive behavioural therapy with a trauma focus; PCT, present centred therapy; CPT, cognitive processing therapy; PE, prolonged exposure; CR, cognitive restructuring; REM Desensitization, rapid eye movement desensitization; CT, cognitive therapy; RTM, reconsolidation of traumatic memories; DET, dialogical exposure therapy; SC, supportive counselling; EFT, emotional freedom technique; TAU, treatment as usual; EMDR, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing; VRE, virtual reality exposure; I-CBT, Internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy; WET, written emotion therapy; I-Psychoeducation, Internet-based psychoeducation; WL, waiting list; IPT, interpersonal psychotherapy; I-SC, Internet-based supportive counselling; MC/RA, medical checks/repeated assessments.

Table 2. Risk assessment

	Random sequence generation	Allocation concealment	Incomplete outcome data assessment	Blinding of outcome	Selective reporting	Other sources of bias	Total no. high risk
Acarturk et al. (2016)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Adenauer et al. (2011)	Low	Low	Low	Low	High	High	2
Ahmadi, Hazrati, Ahmadizadeh, and Noohi (2015)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Unclear	Unclear	High	2
Akbarian et al. (2015)	Low	High	Low	Low	Unclear	High	2
Asukai, Saito, Tsuruta, Kishimoto, and Nishikawa (2010)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Basoglu et al. (2005)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Basoglu, Salcioglu, and Livanou (2007)	Low	Low	High	High	Unclear	High	3
Beck, Coffey, Foy, Keane, and Blanchard (2009)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Low	Unclear	High	2
Bichescu, Neuner, Schauer, and Elbert (2007)	High	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	2
Blanchard et al. (2003)	High	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	1
Bradshaw, McDonald, Grace, Detwiler, and Austin (2014)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	High	Unclear	High	2
Brom, Kleber, and Defares (1989)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Unclear	Unclear	High	2
Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang, and Nixon (2003)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Bryant et al. (2011)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Buhmann, Nordentoft, Ekstroem, Carlsson, and Mortensen (2016)	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	0
Butollo, Karl, König, and Rosner (2016)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Capezzani et al. (2013)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Carletto et al. (2016)	Low	Low	High	Low	Low	Low	1
Carlson, Chemtob, Rusnak, Hedlund, and Muraoka (1998)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Unclear	Unclear	Low	1
Castillo et al. (2016)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Chard (2005)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Cloitre, Koenen, Cohen, and Han (2002)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	High	Low	1
Cloitre et al. (2010)	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Devilly, Spence, and Rapee (1998)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Low	Unclear	Low	1
Devilly and Spence (1999)	High	Unclear	High	Unclear	Unclear	High	3
Dorrepaal et al. (2012)	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	High	2
Duffy, Gillespie, and Clark (2007)	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	High	1
Dunne, Kenardy, and Sterling (2012)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Unclear	High	1
Echeburua, De Corral, Zubizarreta, and Sarasua (1997)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Unclear	High	1
Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, and Fennell (2005)	Low	Low	High	Low	Unclear	High	2
Ehlers et al. (2003)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	2
Ehlers et al. (2014)	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Falsetti, Resnick, and Davis (2008)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	High	High	2
Fecteau and Nicki (1999)	Low	Unclear	High	Unclear	Unclear	High	2
Feske (2008)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Unclear	High	1
Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdock (1991)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Low	Unclear	High	2
Foa et al. (1999)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Foa et al. (2005)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Foa et al. (2018)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Fonzo et al. (2017)	Low	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	0
Forbes et al. (2012)	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Unclear	High	1
Ford, Steinberg, and Zhang (2011)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Ford, Chang, Levine, and Zhang (2013)	Low	Low	High	Low	Unclear	High	2
Galovski, Blain, Mott, Elwood, and Houle (2012)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Gamito et al. (2010)	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	High	High	2
Gersons, Carlier, Lamberts, and Van der Kolk (2000)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Gray, Budden-Potts, and Bourke (2017)	Low	Low	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	0
Hensel-Dittmann et al. (2011)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Hinton et al. (2005)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Hinton, Hofmann, Rivera, Otto, and Pollack (2011)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Unclear	High	1
Hogberg et al. (2007)	Low	Unclear	High	Low	Unclear	High	2
Hollifield, Sinclair-Lian, Warner, and Hammerschlag (2007)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Ironson, Freund, Strauss, and Williams (2002)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	High	Unclear	High	2
Ivarsson et al. (2014)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Jacob, Neuner, Maedl, Schaal, and Elbert (2014)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Jensen (1994)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Unclear	Unclear	High	2
Johnson, Zlotnick, and Perez (2011)	Low	Unclear	Low	High	Unclear	Low	1
Johnson, Johnson, Perez, Palmieri, and Zlotnick (2016)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Karatzias et al. (2011)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Keane, Fairbank, Caddell, and Zimering (1989)	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	High	Unclear	High	2
Krupnick et al. (2008)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Unclear	High	1
Kubany, Hill, and Owens (2003)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Kubany et al. (2004)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Laugharne et al. (2016)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Lee, Gavriel, Drummond, Richards, and Greenwald (2002)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Lewis et al. (2017)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Littleton et al. (2016)	Low	Unclear	Low	High	Low	Low	1
Litz, Engel, Bryant, and Papa (2007)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Low	Low	High	2
Marcus, Marquis, and Sakai (1997)	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	High	Unclear	High	2
Markowitz et al. (2015)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, and Thrasher (1998)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
McDonagh et al. (2005)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
McLay et al. (2011)	Low	Low	Unclear	High	Unclear	High	2
McLay et al. (2017)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Monson et al. (2012)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Monson et al. (2006)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Morath et al. (2014)	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	0
Mueser et al. (2008)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Nacasch et al. (2011)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Neuner et al. (2010)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Neuner et al. (2008)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Neuner, Schauer, Klaschik, Karunakara, and Elbert (2004)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Nijdam, Gersons, Reitsma, de Jongh, and Olff (2012)	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Pacella et al. (2012)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Paunovic (2011)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	High	Unclear	High	2
Peniston and Kulkosky (1991)	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Unclear	0
Power et al. (2002)	Low	Low	High	Low	Unclear	Low	1
Rauch et al. (2015)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Ready, Gerardi, Backscheider, Mascaro, and Rothbaum (2010)	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	High	1
Reger et al. (2016)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Resick et al. (2015)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Resick, Nishith, Weaver, Astin, and Feuer (2002)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Resick et al. (2017)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Rothbaum (1997)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Low	Unclear	High	2
Rothbaum, Astin, and Marsteller (2005)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Low	Unclear	Low	1
Sautter, Glynn, Cretu, Senturk, and Vaught (2015)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Scheck, Schaeffer, and Gillette (1998)	Low	Low	High	Unclear	Unclear	High	2
Schnurr et al. (2003)	High	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	Low	1
Schnurr et al. (2007)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Schnyder, Müller, Maercker, and Wittmann (2011)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Unclear	0
Sloan, Marx, Bovin, Feinstein, and Gallagher (2012)	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Sloan, Marx, Lee, and Resick (2018)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	Low	0
Spence et al. (2011)	Low	Unclear	High	High	Low	Unclear	2
Stenmark, Catani, Neuner, Elbert, and Holen (2013)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	High	Low	High	2
Suris, Link-Malcolm, Chard, Ahn, and North (2013)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Taylor et al. (2003)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Tylee, Gray, Glatt, and Bourke (2017)	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Unclear	High	1
Vaughan et al. (1994)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Unclear	Low	0
Wells, Walton, Lovell, and Proctor (2015)	Low	Low	Low	Low	Unclear	High	1
Wells and Sembi (2004)	Low	Low	High	High	Unclear	High	3
Yehuda et al. (2014)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Unclear	Unclear	Unclear	1
Zang, Hunt, and Cox (2014)	Unclear	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Zang, Hunt, and Cox (2013)	Low	Unclear	Low	Low	Low	High	1
Zlotnick et al. (1997)	Unclear	Unclear	High	Low	Low	High	2

Table 3. Meta-analytic results

	Severity of PTSD symptoms post-treatment	GRADE judgement for quality of evidence
1) CBT with a trauma focus versus wait list or treatment as usual.	CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 51; N = 1380; SMD −1.32 CI −1.57 to −1.08].	Moderate quality
2) Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy versus wait list or treatment as usual.	Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy showed no benefit when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 2; N = 72; SMD −0.38 CI −0.85 to 0.09].	Very low quality
3) Cognitive Processing Therapy versus wait list or treatment as usual.	Cognitive Processing Therapy showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 4; N = 298; SMD −1.03 CI −1.45 to −0.61].	Low quality
4) Cognitive Therapy versus wait list or treatment as usual.	Cognitive Therapy showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 4; N = 189; SMD −1.33 CI −1.80 to −0.86].	Low quality
5) Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) versus wait list or treatment as usual.	Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 8; N = 241; SMD −1.06 CI −1.61 to −0.52].	Low quality
6) Prolonged Exposure versus wait list or treatment as usual.	Prolonged exposure (PE) showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 12; N = 772; SMD −1.59 CI −2.05 to −1.13].	Low quality
7) Single Session CBT with a trauma focus versus wait list or treatment as usual.	Single Session CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 2; N = 90; SMD −0.57 CI −1.00 to −0.15].	Very low quality
8) Reconsolidation of traumatic memories (RTM) versus wait list or treatment as usual	RTM showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 2; N = 96; SMD −2.35 CI −2.89 to −1.82].	Very low quality
9) EMDR versus wait list or treatment as usual	EMDR showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 11; N = 415; SMD −1.23 CI −1.69 to −0.76].	Low quality
10) Non-trauma focused CBT versus wait list or treatment as usual	CBT without a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 7; N = 318; SMD −1.06 CI −1.39 to −0.73].	Low quality
11) Supportive counselling versus waitlist or treatment as usual	There was no evidence of a difference between supportive counselling and wait list or treatment as usual [k = 2; N = 72; SMD −0.43 CI −0.90 to 0.04].	Very low quality
12) Present centred therapy versus waitlist or treatment as usual	Present centred therapy showed a positive effect when compared with waitlist of treatment as usual [k = 2; N = 138; SMD −0.97 CI −1.33 to −0.62].	Very low quality
13) Psychodynamic therapy versus treatment as usual	Psychodynamic therapy showed no benefit when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 52; SMD −0.41; CI −0.96 to 0.14].	Very low quality
14) Written exposure therapy versus treatment as usual	Written exposure therapy showed a positive effect when compared with waitlist of treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 44; SMD −3.39; CI −4.43 to −2.44].	Very low quality
15) Virtual Reality Therapy versus wait list or treatment as usual	Virtual Reality Therapy showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 3; N = 104; SMD −0.43 CI −0.83 to −0.03].	Very low quality
16) Observed and experimental integration (OEI) versus wait list or treatment as usual	OEI showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 10; SMD −2.86 CI −4.90 to −0.83].	Very low quality
17) Relaxation Training versus wait list or treatment as usual	Relaxation training showed no benefit when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 53; SMD −0.10; CI −0.65 to 0.46].	Very low quality
18) Group CBT with a trauma focus versus wait list or treatment as usual	Group CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 7; N = 313; SMD −1.02 CI −1.26 to −0.78].	Moderate quality
19) Group and individual CBT with a trauma focus versus wait list or treatment as usual	Group and individual CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 55; SMD −2.32 CI −3.01 to −1.62].	Very low quality
20) Group stabilizing treatment versus wait list or treatment as usual	Group stabilizing treatment showed no benefit when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 71; SMD −0.11; CI −0.36 to 0.57].	Very low quality
21) Group interpersonal therapy (IPT) versus wait list or treatment as usual	Group IPT showed a positive effect when compared with waitlist or treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 48; SMD −1.19; CI −1.84 to −0.54].	Very low quality
22) Couples CBT with a trauma focus vs waitlist or treatment as usual	Couples CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with waitlist or treatment as usual [k = 1; N = 40; SMD −1.12; CI −1.79 to −0.45].	Very low quality
23) Guided internet-based trauma focused CBT versus waitlist/usual care	Guided internet-based CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with wait list or treatment as usual [k = 3; N = 145; SMD −1.08 CI −1.80 to −0.37].	Very low quality

Table 4. Meta-analytic results

	Severity of PTSD symptoms post-treatment	GRADE judgement for quality of evidence
1) CBT with a trauma focus versus CBT without a trauma focus	There was no evidence of a difference between CBT with a trauma focus versus CBT without a trauma focus [k = 5; N = 185; SMD −0.10 CI −0.19 to 0.39].	Low quality
2) CBT with a trauma focus versus Present Centred Therapy	CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with present centred therapy [k = 4; N = 433; SMD −0.45 CI −0.81 to −0.09].	Low quality
3) CBT with a trauma focus versus supportive counselling	CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with supportive counselling [k = 8; N = 434; SMD −0.63 CI −1.04 to −0.21].	Low quality
4) CBT with a trauma focus versus psychodynamic therapy	There was no evidence of a difference between CBT with a trauma focus and psychodynamic therapy [k = 1; N = 56; SMD −0.03 CI −0.56 to 0.49].	Very low quality
5) CBT with a trauma focus versus Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)	CBT-T showed a positive effect when compared with IPT [k = 1; N = 66; SMD −0.48; CI −0.98 to 0.01].	Very low quality
6) CBT without a trauma focus versus PCT	There was no evidence of a difference between CBT without a trauma focus and PCT [k = 1; N = 101; SMD −0.04; CI −0.43 to 0.35].	Very low quality
7) CBT with a trauma focus versus dialogical exposure therapy (DET)	CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with dialogical exposure therapy [k = 1; N = 138; SMD −0.39; CI −0.73 to −0.05].	Very low quality
8) Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) versus prolonged exposure (PE)	There was no evidence of a difference between cognitive processing therapy and prolonged exposure [k = 1; N = 124; SMD −0.18; CI −0.53 to 0.17].	Very low quality
9) EMDR versus CBT with a trauma focus	There was no evidence of a difference between CBT with a trauma focus and EMDR [k = 10; N = 387; SMD −0.17 CI −0.55 to 0.21].	Low quality
10) EMDR versus supportive counselling	EMDR showed a positive effect when compared with supportive counselling [k = 1; N = 57; SMD −0.75 CI −1.29 to −0.21].	Very low quality
11) EMDR versus EFT	There was no evidence of a difference between EMDR and EFT [k = 1; N = 46; SMD = 0.08; CI −0.50 to 0.65].	Very low quality
12) EMDR versus Relaxation Training	There was no evidence of a difference between EMDR and Relaxation Training [k = 4; N = 117; SMD = −0.23; CI −0.59 to 0.14].	Very low quality
13) EMDR versus REM Desensitization	There was no evidence of a difference between EMDR and REM Desensitization [k = 1; N = 21; SMD = 0.06; CI −0.80 to 0.91].	Very low quality
14) CBT without a trauma focus versus supportive counselling	CBT without a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with supportive counselling [k = 1; N = 25; SMD −1.22 CI −2.09 to −0.35].	Very low quality
15) CBT with a trauma focus versus psychoeducation	There was no evidence of a difference between CBT-T and psychoeducation [k = 1; N = 27; SMD = −0.19; CI −0.95 to 0.57].	Very low quality
16) Written exposure therapy versus CBT with a trauma focus	There was no evidence of a difference between WED and CBT with a trauma focus [k = 1; N = 126; SMD 0.13; CI −0.21 to 0.48].	Very low quality
17) CBT with a trauma focus versus relaxation training	Individual CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with relaxation training [k = 5; N = 203; SMD −0.49; CI −0.79 to −0.20].	Low quality
18) Supportive counselling versus psychoeducation	There was no evidence of a difference between supportive counselling and psychoeducation [k = 1; N = 25; SMD 0.13; CI −0.92 to 0.65].	Low quality
19) Interpersonal therapy versus relaxation training	There was no evidence of a difference between IPT and relaxation training [k = 1; N = 60; SMD −0.15; CI −0.67 to 0.38].	Very low quality
20) Virtual reality therapy versus control exposure	There was no evidence of a difference between virtual reality therapy and control exposure [k = 2; N = 177; SMD 0.01; CI −0.68 to 0.71].	Low quality
21) Virtual reality therapy and present centred therapy	There was no evidence of a difference between virtual reality therapy and present centred therapy [k = 1; N = 9; SMD −0.51; CI −1.86 to 0.84].	Very low quality
22) Group CBT with a trauma focus versus group present centred therapy	Group CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with group present centred therapy [k = 2; N = 333; SMD −0.44; CI −0.63 to −0.24].	Low quality
23) Group CBT with a trauma focus versus individual CBT with a trauma focus	Individual CBT with a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with group CBT with a trauma focus [k = 1; N = 268; SMD 0.35; CI 0.11 to 0.59].	Very low quality
24) Group CBT without a trauma focus versus group supportive counselling	There was no evidence of a difference between group CBT without a trauma focus and group supportive counselling [k = 1; N = 72; SMD −0.02; CI −0.48 to 0.44].	Very low quality
25) Couples CBT without a trauma focus vs couples psychoeducation	Couples CBT without a trauma focus showed a positive effect when compared with couples psychoeducation [k = 1; N = 43; SMD −1.37; CI −2.04 to −0.70].	Very low quality
26) Internet-based trauma focused CBT versus internet-based psychoeducation	Internet-based CBT with a trauma focus showed no benefit when compared with internet-based psychoeducation [k = 1; N = 87; SMD 0.11 CI −0.31 to 0.53].	Very low quality
27) Internet-based trauma focused CBT versus internet-based CBT without a trauma focus	Internet-based CBT with a trauma focus showed no benefit when compared with internet-based CBT without a trauma focus [k = 1; N = 31; SMD 0.40 CI −1.12 to 0.31].	Very low quality

Acarturk, C., Konuk, E., Cetinkaya, M., Senay, I., Sijbrandij, M., Gulen, B., & Cuijpers, P. (2016). The efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression among Syrian refugees: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 46(12), 2583–21.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Adenauer, H., Catani, C., Gola, H., Keil, J., Ruf, M., Schauer, M., & Neuner, F. (2011). Narrative exposure therapy for PTSD increases top-down processing of aversive stimuli – evidence from a randomized controlled treatment trial. BMC Neuroscience, 12(1), 1–13.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ahmadi, K., Hazrati, M., Ahmadizadeh, M., & Noohi, S. (2015). REM desensitization as a new therapeutic method for post-traumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Acta Medica Indonesiana, 47(2), 111–119.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Akbarian, F., Bajoghli, H., Haghighi, M., Kalak, N., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., & Brand, S. (2015). The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy with respect to psychological symptoms and recovering autobiographical memory in patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 395–404.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Asukai, N., Saito, A., Tsuruta, N., Kishimoto, J., & Nishikawa, T. (2010). Efficacy of exposure therapy for Japanese patients with posttraumatic stress disorder due to mixed traumatic events: A randomized controlled study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 744–750.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Basoglu, M., Şalcıoğlu, E., Livanou, M., Kalender, D., & Acar, G. (2005). Single session behavioural treatment of earthquake related posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomised waiting list controlled trial. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(1), 1–11.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Basoglu, M., Salcioglu, E., & Livanou, M. (2007). A randomized controlled study of single-session behavioural treatment of earthquake-related post-traumatic stress disorder using an earthquake simulator. Psychological Medicine, 37, 203–213.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Beck, J., Coffey, S. F., Foy, D. W., Keane, T. M., & Blanchard, E. B. (2009). Group cognitive behavior therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: An initial randomized pilot study. Behavior Therapy, 40, 82–92.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bichescu, D., Neuner, F., Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2007). Narrative exposure therapy for political imprisonment related chronic posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2212–2220.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Blanchard, E., Hickling, E. J., Devineni, T., Veazey, C. H., Galovski, T. E., Mundy, E., & Buckley, T. C. (2003). A controlled evaluation of cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress in motor vehicle accident survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(1), 79–96.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bradshaw, R. A., McDonald, M. J., Grace, R., Detwiler, L., & Austin, K. (2014). A randomized clinical trial of Observed and Experiential Integration (OEI): A simple, innovative intervention for affect regulation in clients with PTSD. Traumatology Traumatology: An International Journal, 20, 161–171.

 Google Scholar

Brom, D., Kleber, R., & Defares, P. (1989). Brief psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorders. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 57(5), 607–612.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bryant, R., Moulds, M. L., Guthrie, R. M., Dang, S. T., & Nixon, R. D. V. (2003). Imaginal exposure alone and imaginal exposure with cognitive restructuring in treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 706–712.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bryant, R. A., Ekasawin, S., Chakrabhand, S., Suwanmitri, S., Duangchun, O., & Chantaluckwong, T. (2011). A randomized controlled effectiveness trial of cognitive behavior therapy for post‐traumatic stress disorder in terrorist‐affected people in Thailand. World Psychiatry, 10(3), 205–209.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Buhmann, C., Nordentoft, M., Ekstroem, M., Carlsson, J., & Mortensen, E. L. (2016). The effect of flexible cognitive-behavioural therapy and medical treatment, including antidepressants on post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in traumatised refugees: Pragmatic randomised controlled clinical trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry : The Journal of Mental Science, 208, 252–259.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Butollo, W., Karl, R., König, J., & Rosner, R. (2016). A randomized controlled clinical trial of dialogical exposure therapy versus cognitive processing therapy for adult outpatients suffering from PTSD after type I trauma in adulthood. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 85(1), 16–26.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Capezzani, L., Ostacoli, L., Cavallo, M., Carletto, S., Fernandez, I., Solomon, R., … Cantelmi, T. (2013). EMDR and CBT for cancer patients: Comparative study of effects on PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 7, 134–143.

 Google Scholar

Carletto, S., Borghi, M., Bertino, G., Oliva, F., Cavallo, M., Hofmann, A., … Ostacoli, L. (2016). Treating post-traumatic stress disorder in patients with multiple sclerosis: A randomized controlled trial comparing the efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing and relaxation therapy. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 526.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Carlson, J., Chemtob, C. M., Rusnak, K., Hedlund, N. L., & Muraoka, M. Y. (1998). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EDMR) treatment for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11(1), 3–32.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Castillo, D. T., Chee, C. L., Nason, E., Keller, J., C’de Baca, J., Qualls, C., & Keane, T. M. (2016). Group-delivered cognitive/exposure therapy for PTSD in women veterans: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 8, 404–412.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chard, K. M. (2005). An evaluation of cognitive processing therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(5), 965.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cloitre, M., Koenen, K. C., Cohen, L. R., & Han, H. (2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: A phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1067–1074.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cloitre, M., Stovall-McClough, K. C., Nooner, K., Zorbas, P., Cherry, S., Jackson, C. L., … Petkova, E. (2010). Treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 915–924.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Devilly, G., Spence, S., & Rapee, R. (1998). Statistical and reliable change with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Treating trauma within a veteran population. Behavior Therapy, 29, 435–455.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Devilly, G. J., & Spence, S. H. (1999). The relative efficacy and treatment distress of EMDR and a cognitive-behavior trauma treatment protocol in the amelioration of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13(1–2), 131–157.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dorrepaal, E., Thomaes, K., Smit, J. H., van Balkom, A. J. L. M., Veltman, D. J., Hoogendoorn, A. W., & Draijer, N. (2012). Stabilizing group treatment for complex posttraumatic stress disorder related to child abuse based on psychoeducation and cognitive behavioural therapy: A multisite randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 81, 217–225.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Duffy, M., Gillespie, K., & Clark, D. (2007). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the context of terrorism and other civil conflict in Northern Ireland: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ, 334, 1147–1150.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dunne, R. L., Kenardy, J., & Sterling, M. (2012). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for the treatment of PTSD in the context of chronic whiplash. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 28(9), 755–765.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Echeburua, E., De Corral, P., Zubizarreta, I., & Sarasua, B. (1997). Psychological treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of sexual aggression. Behavior Modification, 21, 433–456.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus, F., & Fennell, M. (2005). Cognitive therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: Development and evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 413–431.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus, F., Fennell, M., Herbert, C., & Mayou, R. (2003). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(10), 1024–1032.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Grey, N., Wild, J., Liness, S., Albert, I., … Clark, D. M. (2014). A randomized controlled trial of 7-day intensive and standard weekly cognitive therapy for PTSD and emotion-focused supportive therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 294–304.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Falsetti, S., Resnick, H., & Davis, J. (2008). Multiple channel exposure therapy for women with PTSD and comorbid panic attacks. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 37, 117–130.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Fecteau, G., & Nicki, R. (1999). Cognitive behavioural treatment of post traumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accident. Behavioural & Cognitive Psychotherapy, 27(3), 201–214.

 Google Scholar

Feske, U. (2008). Treating low-income and minority women with posttraumatic stress disorder a pilot study comparing prolonged exposure and treatment as usual conducted by community therapists. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(8), 1027–1040.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Foa, E., Rothbaum, B. O., Riggs, D. S., & Murdock, T. B. (1991). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: A comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(5), 715–723.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Foa, E., Dancu, C. V., Hembree, E. A., Jaycox, L. H., Meadows, E. A., & Street, G. P. (1999). A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(2), 194–200.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Foa, E., Hembree, E. A., Cahill, S. P., Rauch, S. A. M., Riggs, D. S., Feeny, N. C., & Yadin, E. (2005). Randomized trial of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder with and without cognitive restructuring: Outcome at academic and community clinics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 953–964.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Foa, E. B., McLean, C. P., Zang, Y., Rosenfield, D., Yadin, E., Yarvis, J. S., … Fina, B. A. (2018). Effect of prolonged exposure therapy delivered over 2 weeks vs 8 weeks vs present-centered therapy on PTSD symptom severity in military personnel: A randomized clinical trial. Jama, 319, 354–364

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Fonzo, G., Goodkind, M. S., Oathes, D. J., Zaiko, Y. V., Harvey, M., Peng, K. K., … Etkin, A. (2017). PTSD psychotherapy outcome predicted by brain activation during emotional reactivity and regulation. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 1163–1174.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Forbes, D., Lloyd, D., Nixon, R. D. V., Elliott, P., Varker, T., Perry, D., … Creamer, M. (2012). A multisite randomized controlled effectiveness trial of cognitive processing therapy for military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26(3), 442–452.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ford, J. D., Steinberg, K. L., & Zhang, W. (2011). A randomized clinical trial comparing affect regulation and social problem-solving psychotherapies for mothers with victimization-related PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 560–578.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ford, J. D., Chang, R., Levine, J., & Zhang, W. (2013). Randomized clinical trial comparing affect regulation and supportive group therapies for victimization-related PTSD with incarcerated women. Behavior Therapy, 44(2), 262–276.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Galovski, T. E., Blain, L. M., Mott, J. M., Elwood, L., & Houle, T. (2012). Manualized therapy for PTSD: Flexing the structure of cognitive processing therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(6), 968.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gamito, P., Oliveira, J., Rosa, P., Morais, D., Duarte, N., Oliveira, S., & Saraiva, T. (2010). PTSD elderly war veterans: A clinical controlled pilot study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 13(1), 43–48.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gersons, B. P., Carlier, I. V., Lamberts, R. D., & Van der Kolk, B. A. (2000). Randomized clinical trial of brief eclectic psychotherapy for police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(2), 333–347.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gray, R., Budden-Potts, D., & Bourke, F. (2017). Reconsolidation of traumatic memories for PTSD: A randomized controlled trial of 74 male veterans. Psychotherapy Research, 29(5), 1–19.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hensel-Dittmann, D., Schauer, M., Ruf, M., Catani, C., Odenwald, M., Elbert, T., & Neuner, F. (2011). Treatment of traumatized victims of war and torture: A randomized controlled comparison of narrative exposure therapy and stress inoculation training. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 80(6), 345–352.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hinton, D., Chhean, D., Pich, V., Safren, S. A., Hofmann, S. G., & Pollack, M. H. (2005). A randomised controlled trial of cognitive behaviour therapy for Cambodian refugees with treatment resistant PTSD and panic attacks: A cross over design. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 617–629.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hinton, D. E., Hofmann, S. G., Rivera, E., Otto, M. W., & Pollack, M. H. (2011). Culturally adapted CBT (CA-CBT) for Latino women with treatment-resistant PTSD: A pilot study comparing CA-CBT to applied muscle relaxation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(4), 275–280.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hogberg, G., Pagani, M., Sundin, O., Soares, J., Aberg-Wistedt, A., Tarnell, B., & Hallstrom, T. (2007). On treatment with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in public transportation workers – A randomized controlled trial. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 61(1), 54–60.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hollifield, M., Sinclair-Lian, N., Warner, T. D., & Hammerschlag, R. (2007). Acupuncture for posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(6), 504–513.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ironson, G., Freund, B., Strauss, J. L., & Williams, J. (2002). Comparison of two treatments for traumatic stress: A community based study of EMDR and prolonged exposure. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 113–128.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ivarsson, D., Blom, M., Hesser, H., Carlbring, P., Enderby, P., Nordberg, R., & Andersson, G. (2014). Guided internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Internet Interventions, 1, 33–40.

 Google Scholar

Jacob, N., Neuner, F., Maedl, A., Schaal, S., & Elbert, T. (2014). Dissemination of psychotherapy for trauma spectrum disorders in postconflict settings: A randomized controlled trial in Rwanda. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83, 354–363.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Jensen, J. (1994). An investigation of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing as a treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms of vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy, 25, 311–325.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Johnson, D. M., Zlotnick, C., & Perez, S. (2011). Cognitive behavioral treatment of PTSD in residents of battered women’s shelters: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(4), 542.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Johnson, D., Johnson, N. L., Perez, S. K., Palmieri, P. A., & Zlotnick, C. (2016). Comparison of adding treatment of PTSD during and after shelter stay to standard care in residents of battered women’s shelters: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 29, 365–373.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Karatzias, T., Power, K., Brown, K., McGoldrick, T., Begum, M., Young, J., … Adams, S. (2011). A controlled comparison of the effectiveness and efficiency of two psychological therapies for posttraumatic stress disorder: Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing vs. emotional freedom techniques. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199, 372–378.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Keane, T., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., & Zimering, R. T. (1989). Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy, 20(2), 245–260.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Krupnick, J. L., Green, B. L., Stockton, P., Miranda, J., Krause, E., & Mete, M. (2008). Group interpersonal psychotherapy for low-income women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychotherapy Research, 18(5), 497–507.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kubany, E., Hill, E. E., & Owens, J. A. (2003). Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women with PTSD: Preliminary findings. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 81–91.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kubany, E., Hill, E., Owens, J., Iannce-Spencer, C., McCaig, M. A., Tremayne, K. J., & Williams, P. L. (2004). Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women with PTSD (CTT-BW). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(1), 3–18.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Laugharne, J., Kullack, C., Lee, C. W., McGuire, T., Brockman, S., Drummond, P. D., & Starkstein, S. (2016). Amygdala volumetric change following psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 28, 312–318.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee, C., Gavriel, H., Drummond, P., Richards, J., & Greenwald, R. (2002). Treatment of PTSD: Stress inoculation training with prolonged exposure compared to EMDR. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 1071–1089.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lewis, C. E., Farewell, D., Groves, V., Kitchiner, N. J., Roberts, N. P., Vick, T., & Bisson, J. I. (2017). Internet‐based guided self‐help for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Randomized controlled trial. Depression and Anxiety, 34(6), 555–565.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Littleton, H., Grills, A. E., Kline, K. D., Schoemann, A. M., & Dodd, J. C. (2016). The from survivor to thriver program: RCT of an online therapist-facilitated program for rape-related PTSD. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 43, 41–51.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Litz, B. T., Engel, C. C., Bryant, R. A., & Papa, A. (2007). A randomized, controlled proof-of-concept trial of an Internet-based, therapist-assisted self-management treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1676–1683.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Marcus, S., Marquis, P., & Sakai, C. (1997). Controlled study of treatment of PTSD using EMDR in an HMO setting. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 34, 307–315.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Markowitz, J., Petkova, E., Neria, Y., Van Meter, P. E., Zhao, Y., Hembree, E., & Marshall, R. D. (2015). Is exposure necessary? A randomized clinical trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 430–440.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Marks, I., Lovell, K., Noshirvani, H., Livanou, M., & Thrasher, S. (1998). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by exposure and/or cognitive restructuring: A controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(4), 317–325.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

McDonagh, A., Friedman, M., McHugo, G., Ford, J., Sengupta, A., Mueser, K., … Descamps, M. (2005). Randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioural therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 515–524.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

McLay, R., Wood, D. P., Webb-Murphy, J. A., Spira, J. L., Wiederhold, M. D., Pyne, J. M., & Wiederhold, B. K. (2011). A randomized, controlled trial of virtual reality-graded exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in active duty service members with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14, 223–229.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

McLay, R., Baird, A., Webb-Murphy, J., Deal, W., Tran, L., Anson, H., … Johnston, S. (2017). A randomized, head-to-head study of virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 20, 218–224.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Monson, C., Fredman, S. J., Macdonald, A., Pukay-Martin, N. D., Resick, P. A., & Schnurr, P. P. (2012, August 15). Effect of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy for PTSD: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 308(7), 714–716.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Monson, C., Schnurr, P. P., Resick, P. A., Friedman, M. J., Young-Xu, Y., & Stevens, S. P. (2006). Cognitive processing therapy for veterans with military related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 898–907.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Morath, J., Moreno-Villanueva, M., Hamuni, G., Kolassa, S., Ruf-Leuschner, M., Schauer, M., & Kolassa, I.-T. (2014). Effects of psychotherapy on DNA strand break accumulation originating from traumatic stress. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83, 289–297.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mueser, K. T., Rosenberg, S. D., Xie, H., Jankowski, M. K., Bolton, E. E., Lu, W., … Wolfe, R. (2008). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 259–271.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nacasch, N., Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Tzur, D., Fostick, L., Dinstein, Y., … Zohar, J. (2011). Prolonged exposure therapy for combat- and terror-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized control comparison with treatment as usual NCT00229372. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72, 1174–1180.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Neuner, F., Kurreck, S., Ruf, M., Odenwald, M., Elbert, T., & Schauer, M. (2010). A randomized controlled pilot study can asylum seekers with posttraumatic stress disorder be successfully treated? Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 39(2), 81–91.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Neuner, F., Onyut, P. L., Ertl, V., Odenwald, M., Schauer, E., & Elbert, T. (2008). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by trained lay counselors in an African refugee settlement: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(4), 686.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Klaschik, C., Karunakara, U., & Elbert, T. (2004). A comparison of narrative exposure therapy, supportive counselling, and psychoeducation for treating posttraumatic stress disorder in an African refugee settlement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(4), 579–587.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nijdam, M. J., Gersons, B. P. R., Reitsma, J. B., de Jongh, A., & Olff, M. (2012). Brief eclectic psychotherapy v. eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 200(3), 224–231.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Pacella, M. L., Armelie, A., Boarts, J., Wagner, G., Jones, T., Feeny, N., & Delahanty, D. L. (2012). The impact of prolonged exposure on PTSD symptoms and associated psychopathology in people living with HIV: A randomized test of concept. AIDS and Behavior, 16(5), 1327–1340.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Paunovic, N. (2011). Exposure inhibition therapy as a treatment for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A controlled pilot study. Psychology, 2(6), 605.

 Google Scholar

Peniston, E. G., & Kulkosky, P. J. (1991). Alpha-theta brainwave neurofeedback for Vietnam veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Medical Psychotherapy, 4(1), 47–60.

 Google Scholar

Power, K., McGoldrick, T., Brown, K., Buchanan, R., Sharp, D., Swanson, V., & Karatzias, A. (2002). A controlled comparison of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing versus exposure plus cognitive restructuring versus waiting list in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9, 229–318.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rauch, S., King, A. P., Abelson, J., Tuerk, P. W., Smith, E., Rothbaum, B. O., … Liberzon, I. (2015). Biological and symptom changes in posttraumatic stress disorder treatment: A randomized clinical trial. Depression and Anxiety, 32, 204–212.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ready, D. J., Gerardi, R. J., Backscheider, A. G., Mascaro, N., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2010). Comparing virtual reality exposure therapy to present centred therapy with 11 US Vietnam veterans with PTSD cyberpsychology. Behavior and Social Networking, 13(1), 49–54.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Reger, G., Koenen-Woods, P., Zetocha, K., Smolenski, D. J., Holloway, K. M., Rothbaum, B. O., & Gahm, G. A. (2016). Randomized controlled trial of prolonged exposure using imaginal exposure vs. virtual reality exposure in active duty soldiers with deployment-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84, 946–959.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Resick, P. A., Wachen, J. S., Mintz, J., Young-McCaughan, S., Roache, J. D., Borah, A. M., & Peterson, A. L. (2015). A randomized clinical trial of group cognitive processing therapy compared with group present-centered therapy for PTSD among active duty military personnel. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83, 1058–1068. Epub ahead of print.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Resick, P., Nishith, P., Weaver, T. L., Astin, M. C., & Feuer, C. A. (2002). A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 867–879.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Resick, P. A., Wachen, J. S., Dondanville, K. A., Pruiksma, K. E., Yarvis, J. S., Peterson, A. L., … Young-McCaughan, S. (2017). Effect of group vs individual cognitive processing therapy in active-duty military seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(1), 28–36.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rothbaum, B. (1997). A controlled study of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disordered sexual assault victims. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 61(3), 317–334.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rothbaum, B., Astin, M. C., & Marsteller, F. (2005). Prolonged exposure versus eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) for PTSD rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 607–616.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sautter, F. J., Glynn, S. M., Cretu, J. B., Senturk, D., & Vaught, A. S. (2015). Efficacy of structured approach therapy in reducing PTSD in returning veterans: A randomized clinical trial. Psychological Services, 12(3), 199–212.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Scheck, M., Schaeffer, J. A., & Gillette, C. (1998). Brief psychological intervention with traumatized young women: The efficacy of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 25–44.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Schnurr, P., Friedman, M. J., Foy, D. W., Shea, M. T., Hsieh, F. Y., Lavori, P. W., & Bernardy, N. C. (2003). Randomized trial of trauma-focused group therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 481–489.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Schnurr, P., Friedman, M. J., Engel, C. C., Foa, E. B., Shea, M. T., Chow, B. K., … Bernardy, N. (2007). Cognitive behavioural therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in women. JAMA, 297, 820–830.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Schnyder, U., Müller, J., Maercker, A., & Wittmann, L. (2011). Brief eclectic psychotherapy for PTSD: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72, 564–566.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sloan, D., Marx, B. P., Bovin, M. J., Feinstein, B. A., & Gallagher, M. W. (2012). Written exposure as an intervention for PTSD: A randomized clinical trial with motor vehicle accident survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(10), 627–635.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sloan, D., Marx, B. P., Lee, D. J., & Resick, P. A. (2018). A brief exposure-based treatment vs cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized noninferiority clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 75, 233.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Spence, J., Titov, N., Dear, B. F., Johnston, L., Solley, K., Lorian, C., … Schwenke, G. (2011). Randomised controlled trial of internet delivered cognitive behavioural therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 541–550.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Stenmark, H., Catani, C., Neuner, F., Elbert, T., & Holen, A. (2013). Treating PTSD in refugees and asylum seekers within the general health care system. A randomized controlled multicenter study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51, 641–647.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Suris, A., Link-Malcolm, J., Chard, K., Ahn, C., & North, C. (2013). A randomized clinical trial of cognitive processing therapy for veterans with PTSD related to military sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 28–37.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Taylor, S., Thordarson, D. S., Maxfield, L., Fedoroff, I. C., Lovell, K., & Ogrodniczuk, J. (2003). Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects of three PTSD treatments: Exposure therapy, EMDR, and relaxation training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 330–338.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tylee, D. S., Gray, R., Glatt, S. J., & Bourke, F. (2017). Evaluation of the reconsolidation of traumatic memories protocol for the treatment of PTSD: A randomized, wait-list-controlled trial. Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health, 3(1), 21–33.

 Google Scholar

Vaughan, K., Armstrong, M. S., Gold, R., O’Connor, N., Jenneke, W., & Tarrier, N. (1994). A trial of eye movement desensitization compared to image habituation training and applied muscle relaxation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 283–291.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wells, A., Walton, D., Lovell, K., & Proctor, D. (2015). Metacognitive therapy versus prolonged exposure in adults with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: A parallel randomized controlled trial. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39, 70–80.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wells, A., & Sembi, S. (2004). Metacognitive therapy for PTSD: A preliminary investigation of a new brief treatment. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 35(4), 307–318.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Yehuda, R., Pratchett, L. C., Elmes, M. W., Lehrner, A., Daskalakis, N. P., Koch, E., & Bierer, L. M. (2014). Glucocorticoid-related predictors and correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder treatment response in combat veterans. Interface Focus, 4(5), 20140048.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zang, Y., Hunt, N., & Cox, T. (2014). Adapting narrative exposure therapy for Chinese earthquake survivors: A pilot randomised controlled feasibility study. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 262.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zang, Y., Hunt, N., & Cox, T. (2013). A randomised controlled pilot study: The effectiveness of narrative exposure therapy with adult survivors of the Sichuan earthquake. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), 1.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zlotnick, C., Shea, T. M., Rosen, K., Simpson, E., Mulrenin, K., Begin, A., & Pearlstein, T. (1997). An affect‐management group for women with posttraumatic stress disorder and histories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(3), 425–436.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar