Updates on food and feed mycotoxin contamination and safety in Africa with special reference to Nigeria

Figures & data

Table 1. Update on mycotoxins contamination of food and feed commodities in different locations across Nigeria

Food and feed commodities	Location	Mycotoxins	Concentrations (range/mean)	References
Maize	Southeastern Nigeria	AFT	0.07–109.78 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	Southeastern Nigeria	FB1	10.0–3644 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	Niger state	OTA	0–139.2 μg/kg	Makun et al. 2013)
	Anambra state	ZEN	170 μg/kg	Oyeka et al. (2019)
	Southeastern Nigeria	DON	0.1–0.7 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	Kogi state	DON	1.34–9.25 μg/kg	Akoma et al. (2019)
	Anambra state	DON	58.2–1890 µg/ kg	Oyeka et al. 2019)
	Southeastern Nigeria	ZEN	1.8–652.3 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	Calabar. Cross River state	ZEN	54.79–54.84 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
	Southeastern Nigeria	OTA	0.6–79.0 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	Agro-ecological zones	T-2	0–29 μg/kg/11.9 µg/kg	Afolabi et al.(2013)
	Calabar. Cross River state	Aflatoxin B1	1.73 −1.78 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
	Calabar. Cross River state	Ochratoxin A	0.50– 0.54 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
	Calabar. Cross River state	Fumonisin B1+ B2	139.45– 139.47 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
Ginger	Lagos state	AFT	0.11–9.52 μg/kg	Lippolis et al. (2017)
Cowpea: white and brown	Lagos, Ogun and Oyo	AFT	209 µg /kg White 88 µg /kg brown	Afolabi et al. (2020)
Cowpea	Ibadan, Oyo state	AFB1	1.5 x 10–2 µg/g,	Ogungbemile et al. (2020)
	Ibadan, Oyo state	AFB2	0.80 x 10– 2 µg/g,	Ogungbemile et al. (2020)
	Ibadan, Oyo state	AFG1	0.60 x 10–2 µg/g,	Ogungbemile et al. (2020)
	Ibadan, Oyo state	AFG1	1.0 x 10– 2 µg/g	Ogungbemile et al. (2020)
Millet	North–Central Nigeria	AFT	4.80–45.60 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	Calabar. Cross River state	ZEN	55.52–55.60 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
	North–Central Nigeria	OTA	1.80–6.20 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	North–Central Nigeria	Fum	10–8400  μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
Millet grain	Niger state	AFT	1.05–14.96 μg/kg	Apeh et al. (2016)
Millet dough	Niger state	AFT	0.81–3.78 μg/kg	Apeh et al. (2016)
Sorghum	North–Central Nigeria	AFT	4.80–42.60 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	North–Central Nigeria	Fum	50–2510 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	North–Central Nigeria	OTA	1.40–5.60 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
Corn	North–Central Nigeria	Fum	110–5110 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
Yam flour	North–Central Nigeria	AFT	5.0–39.45 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	North–Central Nigeria	OTA	1.20–8.20 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	North–Central Nigeria	Fum	10–7200 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
Garri	North–Central Nigeria	AFT	2.60–55.40 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	North–Central Nigeria	Fum	10–1390 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	Anambra state	T-2	9–22 μg/kg	Chilaka et al. (2018a)
	North–Central Nigeria	OTA	1.30–170.1 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
Unprocessed flour/grain	Northern Nigeria	FB1	2.7–10,904 μg/kg	Ezekiel et al., (2019b)
Rice	Southwestern Nigeria	AFT	0.01–6.50 µg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	North Central Nigeria	AFT	2.10–248.20 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	Southwestern Nigeria	ZEN	0.7–570.6 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	Southwestern Nigeria	OTA	0.7–180.9 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	North–Central Nigeria	OTA	1.20–16.9 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	Southwestern Nigeria	DON	0.1–0.7 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	Southwestern Nigeria	FB1	0.9–59.6 μg/kg	Egbuta et al. (2015)
	North– Central Nigeria	Fum	10–1200 μg/kg	Onyedum et al. (2020)
	Calabar.Cross river state	ZEN	54.24–54.27 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
Rice: stored, field and market samples	Niger state	T-2	NA	Makun et al. (2011)
Fin fish	Lagos state	AFT	1.05–10.00 μg/kg	Olajuyigbe et al. (2014)
Shell fish	Lagos state	AFT	4.23–5.90 μg/kg	Olajuyigbe et al. (2014)
Fermented African oil bean seed	Southwest Nigeria	AFB1	3–36. μg/kg	Adekoya et al. 2017b)
African locust beans	Kaduna and Anambra state	T-2	492 μg/kg	Chilaka et al. (2018b)
	Northern Nigeria	FB1	564 μg/kg	Chilaka et al. (2018c)
	Northwest Nigeria	T-2	28–31 μg/kg	Adekoya et al. 2017b)
Poultry feed and feed ingredient	Adamawa, Benue, Borno, Delta, Kaduna, Katsina, Kebbi, Lagos, Niger, Oyo, Rivers, and Taraba	FB1	37–3760 μg/kg	Akinmusire et al. (2019)
	Adamawa, Benue, Borno, Delta, Kaduna, Katsina, Kebbi, Lagos, Niger, Oyo, Rivers, and Taraba state	AFB1	0.5–760 μg/kg	Akinmusire et al. (2019)
Diary feeds	Kaduna state	AFB1	0.5– 24.8 μg/kg	Omeiza et al. (2018)
Fermented melon	Southwest Nigeria	AFB1	1.05–10.00 μg/kg	Adekoya et al. 2017b)
Bread	Kogi, Lagos, Ibadan Ogbomosho, PortHarcout	FB1	10–220 μg/kg	Ojochenemi et al. (2019)
Unprocessed flour/grain	Northern Nigeria	FB1	2.7–10,904	Ezekiel et al. (2019b)
Cashew nut	Abia, Kogi, Oyo, Taraba, Enugu, Anambra, Delta Benue and Lagos state	ZEN	788 μg/kg	Adetunji et al. (2019)
Wheat	Calabar. Cross River state	ZEN	55.39–55.42 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
	Calabar. Cross River state	Aflatoxin B1	1.40– 1.42 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
	Calabar. Cross River state	Ochratoxin A	0.42– 0.44 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
	Calabar. Cross River state	Fumonisin B1+ B2	131.10– 131.12 μg/kg	Neji et al. (2018)
Egusi	Oyo, Niger Adamawa and Kebbi state	AFB1/AFG1	14.1–109.5 ng/g	Obani et al. (2019)
Melon	Benue and Nasarawa states	OTA OTB	112 μg/kg 94 μg/kg	Esan et al. (2020)
Burukutu	Nigeria *Not indicated	DON	61–255 ug/L	Chilaka et al. (2018b)
Wheat	Ogun, Oyo and Lagos state	DON	119–2560 μg/kg	Egbontan et al. (2017)
Sorghum	Minna and Bida,	AFT	0.96–21.74 μg/kg	Apeh et al. (2016)
Burukutu	Niger state	AFT	1.27–8.82 μg/kg	Apeh et al. (2016)
Pito	Niger state	AFT	0.69–2.00 μg/kg	Apeh et al. (2016)
Sesame	Jigawa Nassarawa and Niger state	AFT	0.79–60.05 μg/kg	Apeh et al. (2016)
Melon	Benue and Nasarawa states	OTA OTB	112 μg/kg 94 μg/kg	Esan et al. (2020)

FUM: fumonisins, OTA ochratoxin A, OTB: ochratoxin B, AFT: total aflatoxin; AFB1: aflatoxin B1; AFG1: aflatoxin G1; DON: deoxynivalenol; ZEN: zearalenone.

* Region/state/city not indicated.

Figure 1. Percentage of contamination rate of concern mycotoxin in sub-Saharan Africa. Modification of Darwish et al. (2014)

Table 2. Regulation of mycotoxin used in comparison with safe to eat food and feeds

Mycotoxins	Commodities	Maximum acceptable limit	Legislative body
Aflatoxin	milk and its products, beans	0.5μg/kg	Codex Alimentarius Standard
	nuts: peanuts &almonds,	4 to 5μg/kg
	Cereals.	10μg/kg 20μg/kg
	Melon	2μg/kg AFB1	EU (Adopted by Nigeria)
		4 μg/kg AFT
	All cereals and all products derived from cereals	2.0 μg/kg (AFB1) 4.0 μg/kg (AFT)	European union (EU)
Fumonisins	Unprocessed cereals	<1000 μg/kg	(CAST), 2003) accepted by Nigeria.
	Unprocessed maize	4000 μg/kg	EU
	Maize intended for direct human consumption	1000 μg/kg
Ochratoxin A	raw cereals	0.5μg/kg in 0.12μg/kg weekly	EU/ Codex Alimentarius
	wine and juice and	2μg/kg
	Unprocessed cereals wheat, barley, rye	5.0 μg/kg
	Spice	20 μg/kg
DON	processed cereal based foods and baby foods for infants and young children	200μg/kg	(Commission of the European Communities, 2006)
	Cereal grains (wheat, maize and barley) for processing.	2000 μg/kg	Codex Alimentarius
	Unprocessed wheat, oats and maize	1750μg/kg	EU
Zearalenone	Unprocessed cereals and Maize intended for direct human consumption	100 μg/kg	EU
	Unprocessed maize	350 μg/kg
	Cereals intended for direct human consumption	75 μg/kg

Egbuta M, Wanza M, Dutton M. 2015. Evaluation of five major Mycotoxins Co-contaminating two cereal grains from Nigeria. International Journal of Biochemistry Research & Review. 6(4):160–169. doi:https://doi.org/10.9734/ijbcrr/2015/15306.

 Google Scholar

Makun HA, Adeniran AL, Mailafiya SC, Ayanda IS, Mudashiru AT, Ojukwu UJ, Jagaba AS, Usman Z, Salihu DA. 2013. Natural occurrence of ochratoxin A in some marketed Nigerian foods. Food Control. 31(2):566–571. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.09.043.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Oyeka CA, Amasiani RN, Ekwealor CC. 2019. Mycotoxins contamination of maize in Anambra State, Nigeria. Food Additives and Contaminants: Part B Surveillance. 12(4):280–288. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2019.1661528.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Akoma ON, Ezeh CC, Chukwudozie KI, Iwuchukwu CC, Apeh DO. 2019. Fungal and Mycotoxin contamination of Stored Maize in Kogi, Northcentral Nigeria: an implication for public health. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety. doi:https://doi.org/10.9734/ejnfs/2019/v9i330061.

 Google Scholar

Neji PA, Vincent TO, Anozie RC. 2018. Assessment of the levels of Mycotoxins in varieties of cereals (Oryza Sativa, Zea Mays, Pennisetum Glaucum and Triticum Aestivum) obtained from calabar markets, Cross River State, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications (IJSRP). 8(4):393–398. doi:https://doi.org/10.29322/ijsrp.8.4.2018.p7655.

 Google Scholar

Afolabi CG, Bandyopadhyay R, Leslie JF, Ekpo EJA. 2006. Effect of sorting on incidence and occurrence of fumonisins and fusarium verticillioides on maize from Nigeria. J Food Prot. 69(8):2019–2023. doi:https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-69.8.2019.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lippolis V, Irurhe O, Porricelli ACR, Cortese M, Schena R, Imafidon T, Oluwadun A, Pascale M. 2017. Natural co-occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in ginger (zingiber officinale) from Nigeria. Food Control. 73:1061–1067. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.10.026.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Afolabi CG, Ezekiel CN, Ogunbiyi AE, Oluwadairo OJ, Sulyok M, Krska R. 2020. Fungi and mycotoxins in cowpea (vigna unguiculata L) on Nigerian markets. Food Additives and Contaminants: Part B Surveillance. 13(1):52–58. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2019.1690590.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ogungbemile AO, Etaware PM, Odebode AC. 2020. Aflatoxin detection and quantification in stored cowpea seeds in Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of Biotechnology and Biomedicine. 03(02):10–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.26502/jbb.2642-91280022.

 Google Scholar

Onyedum SC, Adefolalu FS, Muhammad HL, Apeh DO, Agada MS, Imienwanrin MR, Makun HA. 2020. Occurrence of major mycotoxins and their dietary exposure in North-Central Nigeria staples. Scientific African. 7:e00188. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00188.

 Google Scholar

Apeh DO, Ochai DO, Adejumo A, Muhammad HL, Saidu AN, Atehnkeng J, Adeyemi RH, Mailafiya SC, Makun HA. 2016. Mycotoxicological Concerns with Sorghum, Millet and Sesame in Northern Nigeria. J Anal Bioanal Tech. 7:336. doi:https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9872.1000336.

 Google Scholar

Chilaka CA, De Boevre M, Atanda OO, De Saeger S. 2018a. Prevalence of fusarium mycotoxins in cassava and yam products from some selected Nigerian markets. Food Control. 84:226–231. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.08.005.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ezekiel CN, Sulyok M, Ogara IM, Abia WA, Warth B, Šarkanj B, Turner PC, Krska R. 2019b. Mycotoxins in uncooked and plate-ready household food from rural northern Nigeria. Food and Chemical Toxicology. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.002.

 Google Scholar

Makun HA, Dutton MF, Njobeh PB, Mwanza M, Kabiru AY. 2011. Natural multi-occurrence of mycotoxins in rice from Niger State, Nigeria. Mycotoxin Res. 27(2). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-010-0080-5.

 Google Scholar

Olajuyigbe OO, Akande GR, Ezekiel CN, Ezekiel MO. 2014. Aflatoxigenic moulds and aflatoxin contamination of retailed fishery products in Lagos markets. Mycotoxicology Society of Nigeria Mycotoxicology. 1:57–63.

 Google Scholar

Adekoya I, Njobeh P, Obadina A, Chilaka C, Okoth S, De Boevre M, De Saeger S. 2017b. Awareness and prevalence of mycotoxin contamination in selected nigerian fermented foods. Toxins. 9(11):1–16. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins9110363.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chilaka CA, De Boevre M, Atanda OO, De Saeger S. 2018b. Quantification of fusarium mycotoxins in Nigerian traditional beers and spices using a multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method. Food Control. 87:203–210. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.12.028.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chilaka CA, De Boevre M, Atanda OO, De Saeger S. 2018c. Stability of fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin during processing of traditional Nigerian beer and spices. Mycotoxin Res. 34(4):229–239. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-018-0318-1.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Akinmusire OO, El-Yuguda AD, Musa JA, Oyedele OA, Sulyok M, Somorin YM, Ezekiel CN, Krska R. 2019. Mycotoxins in poultry feed and feed ingredients in Nigeria. Mycotoxin Res. 35(2):149–155. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-018-0337-y.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Omeiza GK, Kabir J, Kwaga JKP, Kwanashie CN, Mwanza M, Ngoma L. 2018. A risk assessment study of the occurrence and distribution of aflatoxigenic aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B1 in dairy cattle feeds in a central northern state, Nigeria. Toxicology Reports. 5(August):846–856. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.08.011.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ojochenemi AD, Oku UP, Anthony MH. 2019. Mutual occurrence and dietary exposure to total Aflatoxin and fumonisins in bread: a major breakfast bakery product in Nigeria. Advanced Research in Life Sciences. 3(1):33–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.2478/arls-2019-0008.

 Google Scholar

Adetunji MC, Aroyeun SO, Osho MB, Sulyok M, Krska R, Mwanza M. 2019. Fungal metabolite and mycotoxins profile of cashew nut from selected locations in two African countries. Food Additives and Contaminants - Part A Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure and Risk Assessment. 36(12):1847–1859. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2019.1662951.

 Google Scholar

Obani FT, Atehnkeng J, Ikotun B, Bandyopadhyay R. 2019. Natural occurrence of Aflatoxin in different egusi types found in Nigeria. Issue 1 Ser II. 12:15–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.9790/2380-1201021520.

 Google Scholar

Esan AO, Fapohunda SO, Ezekiel CN, Sulyok M, Krska R. 2020. Distribution of fungi and their toxic metabolites in melon and sesame seeds marketed in two major producing states in Nigeria. Mycotoxin Res. (4). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-020-00400-0.

 Google Scholar

Egbontan AO, Afolabi CG, Kehinde IA, Enikuomehin OA, Ezekiel CN, Sulyok M, Warth B, Krska R. 2017. A mini-survey of moulds and mycotoxins in locally grown and imported wheat grains in Nigeria. Mycotoxin Res. 33(1):59–64. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-016-0264-8.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Darwish WS, Ikenaka Y, Nakayama SMM, Ishizuka M. 2014. An overview on Mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa. J Vet Med Sci. 76(6):789–797. doi:https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.13-0563.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar