Galleria mellonella as a consolidated in vivo model hosts: New developments in antibacterial strategies and novel drug testing

Figures & data

Table 1. G. mellonella advantages versus other invertebrate models as in vivo model host.

	Invertebrate models
Characteristics	G. mellonella	C. elegans	D. melanogaster	Advantage
Grown temperature [28]	37°C	From 15 to 25°C	From 16 to 29°C	Mammalian temperature allows temperature-dependent virulence factors studies
Life span [29]	Short [30]	Long [31]	Long [32]	Facilitates experimentation in the laboratory setting
Size (length) [29]	3 to 30mm	1 mm	3 mm	Convenient for handling
Tissue recovery [28]	Possible	Impossible	Impossible	Tissue studies can be performed
Phagocytosis [28]	Present	Absent	Absent	Information about host–pathogen interactions.

Table 2. Use of G. mellonella in antimicrobial drugs evaluation against pathogens.

Microorganism	Strategy	Reference
Gram-negative
Acinetobacter baumannii	Drug combinations
	● co-trimoxazole/colistin	[43]
	● levofloxacin/colistin	[44]
	● polymyxin B/netropsin	[45]
	● vancomycin/colistin	[46]
	Drug repurposing
	● mitomycin C	[47]
	Bacteriophages
	● A. baumannii phage AB-Army1	[48]
	Phytochemicals combination
	● Theaflavin–Epicatechin	[49]
Burkholderia spp	Drug combinations
	● tobramycin/econazole/miconazole	[4]
	● avibactam/ceftazidime	[50]
	Bacteriophages
	● Burkholderia phage AP3	[51]
	Nutrients from food
	● fish oils	[52]
	Drug/vitamin combination
	● vitamin E/norfloxacin	[53]
Clostridium difficile	Bacteriophages/drug combination
	● C. difficile bacteriophages lysates cocktail (CDHM1, 2, 5, and 6)/vancomycin.	[54]
Enterobacter cloacae.	Drug combinations
	● imipenem/colistin	[55]
	Bacteriophages
	● Escherichia phage ECP311, Klebsiella phage KPP235, and Enterobacter phage ELP140	[56]
Escherichia coli	Bacteriophages
	● Escherichia phage ECP311, Klebsiella phage KPP235, and Enterobacter phage ELP140	[56]
Helicobacter pylori	Drug repurposing
	● niclosamide	[57]
Klebsiella pneumoniae	Delivery drug system
	● gentamicin-loaded nanoparticles	[58]
	Bacteriophages
	● Escherichia phage ECP311, Klebsiella phage KPP235, and Enterobacter phage ELP140	[56]
	● capsule depolymerases produced by the Klebsiella phage KP32	[59]
	● capsule depolymerases produced by the Klebsiella phage KP36	[60]
	● phage φBO1E	[61]
Porphyromonas gingivalis	Plant extract
	● Punica granatum L.(Pomegranate)	[62]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Antimicrobial peptide and drug association
	● Cecropin A2/Tetracycline	[63]
	Antimicrobial peptide
	● mammalian proline-rich peptide SP-E	[64]
	Quorum sensing targeting
	● clofoctol	[65]
	Bacteriophages
	● cocktail of six P. areuginosa phages (PYO2, DEV, E215, E217, PAK_P1, and PAK_P4)	[66]
	Proteins isolated from bacteriophages
	● O-specific polysaccharide lyase from the phage LKA1	[67]
	Plant extract and drug combination
	● steroidal alkaloids and conessine from Holarrhena antidysenterica/levofloxacin	[68]
	Plant made bacteriocins
	● six pyocins produced by P. aeruginosa made using a plant-based transient expression system	[69]
	Nutrients from food
	● fish oils	[52]
	Drug/vitamin combination
	● vitamin E/norfloxacin	[53]
Shigella sonnei	Phytochemical
	● geraniol	[70]
Gram-positive
Enterococcus spp.	Drug combinations
	● rifampicin/tigecycline and linezolid/vancomycin	[71]
Listeria monocytogenes	Essential oil and phytochemicals
	● Cannabis sativa L. essential oil	[72]
	● trans-cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, and thymol	[73]
Mycobacterium abscessus	Drug combinations
	● avibactam/piperacillin	[74]
Staphylococcus aureus	Drug combinations
	● pleuromutilins (valnemulin, tiamulin and retapamulin) alone, and in combination with tetracycline or ciprofloxcin	[75]
	Phytochemicals
	● myricetin	[76]
	● cinnamaldehyde	[77]
	Antibacterial peptide
	● temporins.	[78]
	Antimicrobial compound
	● raf-kinase inhibitor GW5074	[79]

Table 3. G. mellonella in novel drugs testing and toxicity screening.

Compound	Antimicrobial target/drug evaluation	Reference
2-aminoimidazole containing urea	Acinetobacter baumannii	[82]
1,2,4-triazolidine-3-thiones derivates	Acinetobacter baumannii	[83]
Aminoglycoside 6′-N-acetyltransferase type Ib [AAC(6ʹ)-Ib] inhibitory	Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae	[84]
1,2-benzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one derivatives	Enterobacter cloacae	[85]
Steroid-Au(I)-NHC Complexes	Escherichia coli	[86]
[S,S]-ethylenediamine-N,N’-disuccinic acid (EDDS)	Klebsiella pneumoniae	[87]
bis-2-aminoimidazole derivative and azithromycin association	Pseudomonas aeruginosa	[88]
Silver(I) complex	Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans	[89]
Tobramycin−lysine conjugates	Pseudomonas aeruginosa	[90]
Hybrid antibiotic tobramycin−moxifloxacin hybrid core structure	Pseudomonas aeruginosa	[91]
Marine sponge-derived Streptomyces sp. SBT348 extract	Staphylococcus aureus	[92]
1-(4-chlorophenyl)-4,4,4-trifluoro-3-hydroxy-2-buten-1-one	Staphylococcus aureus	[93]
N-phenyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxamide derivatives	Staphylococcus aureus	[94]
1,2,3-Triazole/Sulfonate Analogues	Toxicity screening	[95]
Quinoline thiourea compound	Toxicity screening	[96]
Extract from the pulp of Eugenia brasiliensis Lam. (Myrtaceae)	Toxicity screening	[97]
Thiazolylhydrazone derivatives	Toxicity screening	[98]

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