https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0050-7771
Figures & data
Table 1. Information about protozoan parasites spread by human migratory activity.
Figure 1. Spreading of P. vivax.
New research indicates that P. vivax originated in Africa and was spread to Asia and Australasia, from where the parasite was spread to South America in pre-Columbian times (red arrows) [Citation13]. In post-Columbian times, P. vivax was introduced into Latin America from West Africa by slaves (blue arrow) and from Asia by migrants (green arrow) [Citation13].
Table 2. Information about flatworms spread by human migratory activity.
Figure 2. Spreading of schistosomes (S. mansoni and S. haematobium) and A. duodenale by mass migration.
African schistosomes have evolved in the region of the African Great Lakes, from where they have been spread along the Nile (red arrow) [Citation44]. It is likely that the schistosomes have been dispersed to West Africa in the course of the Yoruba mass migration (orange arrow) and further to Central and South Africa in the course of the Bantu mass migration (yellow arrows) [Citation45]. Originated in the Mediterranean region, A. duodenale has been introduced into North India in the course of the Aryan mass migration (blue arrow) [Citation45].
Table 3. Information about nematodes spread by human migratory activity.
Figure 3. Introduction of soil-transmitted helminths into the Americas.
It is unlikely that soil-transmitted helminths (A. duodenale, N. americanus, T. trichiura, A. lumbricoides, and S. stercoralis) have been introduced into the New World by humans migrating through Beringia (red arrow) because the harsh climate conditions of this route would have been detrimental for the development of their free-living life cycle stages [Citation5]. Instead, soil-transmitted helminths could have been introduced into the New World via costal migration (blue arrows) and/or trans-pacific migration (green arrow) in pre-historic times [Citation5,Citation61–Citation63].
Table 4. Information about insects spread by human migratory activity.
Figure 4. Spreading of Aedes sp. via international tire trade.
The first introduction of A. albopictus into the USA (Los Angeles and Oakland in California) could be traced back to a shipment of used car tires from the Philippines and Vietnam (red arrows) [Citation82]. The establishment of A. albopictus in Padua, Italy, could be linked to used car tires imported from Atlanta, Georgia, USA (blue arrow) [Citation91]. The first reported case of A. albopictus in South Africa could be attributed to a consignment of used car tires from Japan (green arrow) [Citation96]. The introduction of A. aegypti into the Netherlands could be tracked to a shipment of tires from Miami, Florida, USA (orange arrow) [Citation103].
