A review on biofiltration techniques: recent advancements in the removal of volatile organic compounds and heavy metals in the treatment of polluted water

Figures & data

Figure 1. Schematic illustration representing water resource contamination by various pollutants from urban- and rural-based anthropogenic activities.

Table 1. Removal of volatile organic compounds with conventional methods

Nonbiological VOC removal method	Working mechanism	Pollutant	Catalyst	Inlet of VOC	Retention time	Removal efficiency of VOC	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Absorption (wet scrubbing)	Scrubber absorbs the VOCs. This is applicable for water-soluble VOCs	Butanol	-	5 ppmv	20 ms (residence time)	90%	Regeneration of scrubbing liquid through an advanced oxidation process.	Pressure drop in packing structure. A secondary pollutant is a problem.	[23]
Incineration (Metal catalyst)	Laboratory scale tubular reactor used in the decomposition of pollutants in the presence of metal catalysts	1,2-Dichloroethane	Pt; Fe2O3	[C2H4Cl2]0 is the inletconcentration (mol/ L)	1.0 s	66–99.8%; 53–99% at 550°C	Control over retention time with operating temperature.	Disposal of waste is the problem. High energy consumption.	[24]
Ozonation	COF mineralization through hydroxyl radicals from the catalyst	Cooking oil fumes (COF)	Fe(OH)3	THC concentration of 211 ppm	0.05 s	95%	The oxidizing capability of ozone.	Extensive evaluation of catalyst performance for different VOCs.	[25]
Adsorption and ozonation	Adsorption of VOCs followed by oxidation	Methyl ethyl ketone	Alumina silicate	1.35 g m^3	-	93%	Strong thermal and chemical stability.	Adsorbed byproducts decrease the adsorption capacity.	[26]
Adsorption andcondensation	Open-circuit and closed-loop flow in regeneration mode	VOCs	-	4099 ppmv	-	98.50%	Ozone and secondary organic aerosol production after VOCs reduction.	Checking theapplicability for urban areas.	[27]
Oxidization and volatilization	Anodic electrochemical oxidation of pollutants	Chloroform, benzene, trichloroethylene,and toluene	Pt/Ti, IrO2/TiIrO2/Ti, IrO2/TiIrO2/Ti, and IrO2− Ru−Pd/TiIrO2− Ru−Pd/Ti anodes are employed	150 mg/L	-	98%	Electrochemical properties of the anode in the removal of VOCs.	Selection of suitable anodes forparticular VOC. Disposal of catalyst is a problem.	[28]
Membrane separation	The capture of VOCs by a dense porous fibrous membrane	Aniline, benzene, and toluene	Poly(1-trimethylsilyl-1-propyne)	2 mL of VOC solvent	-	871 mg/g anilineadsorbed	Higher adsorption capacity.	Membranes are expensive. Aging of polymers.	[29]

Table 2. Removal of heavy metals with conventional methods

Conventional method	Adsorbent	Heavy metal	Observation	Efficiency	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Adsorption	Graphene oxide-based microbots	Lead(II)	Cleaned water from 1000 ppb down to below 50 ppb in 60 min	95%	A wide range of heavy metals are removed. More removal efficiency. High specific surface area.	Expensive. Sludge production. Regeneration is not possible. Adsorbent decides the metal removal efficiency.	[30]
	Oxidized activated carbon	Copper(II)	Adsorption capacity increased with a pH range of 3.0–6.0	91.30%			[31]
	SiO2-Carbon nanotube	Mercury(II)	Endothermic process, mercury removal increased with increase in temperature	98%			[32]
	Polypyrrole-based activated carbon	Lead(II)	Highest adsorption at pH 5.5, followed chemisorption pathway.	81.80%			[33]
	Geopolymer from dolochar ash	Cobalt(II), nickel(II), cadmium(II), and lead(II)	The process was spontaneous and endothermic. Maximum removal at pH, temperature, and initial metal ion concentration were 7.8, 343 K, and 10 ppm.	98–99%			[34]
Air stripping		Nickel ammoniacomplexion	Optimal parameters pH 11, the temperature of 60°C, and an airflow rate of 0.12 m^3/h	Nickel and ammonia were less than 0.2 mg/L and 2 mg/L	Low cost. Reliable technique.	Not suitable for a wide range of pollutants. Bulk pollutants could not be removed.	[35]
		Mercury	Air stripping with chemical reduction treats a large volume of water.	94% Decrease in mercury level during the injection.			[36]
Coagulation	Ferric chloride and alum	Arsenic	Not effectively remove As from the municipal wastewater to <2.00 μg/L	Reduced total recoverable arsenic from 2.84 and 8.61 μg/L	Dewatering, microbial inactivation, and sludge settling properties.	More sludge is produced. Requirement of chemicals.	[37]
	Humic-like component of terrestrial origin	Copper(II)	Enhanced removal efficiency by intermolecular bridging between the pollutant and humic component of molecular range 100 kDa0.45 μm.				[38]
	Iron electrode	Chromium(IV)	Sinusoidal alternating current reduces energy consumption and enhances removal efficiency.	99.73% and the residual Cr(VI) in the effluent was <0.1 mgdm^−3			[39]
Chemical precipitation	Cu-EDTAdecomplexation	Copper	Cu ions were precipitated as Cu2(OH)2CO3, CuCO3, Cu(OH)2, and CuO.	68.30%	Low investment. Facile process.	More sludge is produced containing metals. High sludge and maintenance cost.	[40]
	Magnesium hydroxy carbonate	Oxovanadium(IV), chromium(III), and iron(III)	Removal efficiencies of heavy metals were increased with the dose of magnesium hydroxy carbonate (.30 g for 50 mL)	99.90%			[41]
Electrochemical	Graphene oxide electrode	Copper, cadmium, and lead	The high density of surface functional groups to assist the electrodeposition by the graphene oxide electrode	>99.9%	Pure metals can be recovered. No chemicals requirement. Rapid technique.	High capital and running costs. Generation of by-products.	[42]
		Zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), and copper (Cu)	Electrochemical better than nanofiltration	99.81%, 99.99%, and 99.98%			[43]
Ion exchange	Li1.9MoS2	Mercury(II), lead(II), cadmium(II), and zinc(II)	Lithium-intercalated layered metal chalcogenides experience exfoliation when treated with water	580 mg of mercury/g	A wide range of heavy metals are removed. Appreciable regeneration and pH tolerance.	High capital and running costs. Only selective metals are removed.	[44]
	Carboxylic weak acids	Copper(II), iron(II), lead(II), and zinc(II)	The complexing nature of carboxylic weak acids stabilize metal ions in solutions generating broader functional pH regions for metal extraction.	Extraction >85%-99%			[45]
Membrane	Ceramic supported graphene oxide (GO)/Attapulgite (ATP)	Copper(II), nickel(II), lead(II), and cadmium(II)	The use of aluminum oxide substrate increased stability and extended usage of membrane	Rejection efficiency 99–100%	High efficiency toward metal selected. Less chemical consumption. Simple design that occupies less space.	Expensive. Fouling of membrane. Flow rates are less. Sludge production.	[46]
	Layered cellulose-based nanocomposite membrane	Silver, copper(II), iron(II), and iron(III)	The high affinity of the membrane toward metal ions.	86–100%			[47]

Figure 2. Biofilter typical setup and working mechanism in the degradation of organic and inorganic pollutants present in air and wastewater.

Table 3. Various biological-based processes employed in the removal of volatile organic compounds

VOCs	Methods	Sources	Elimination Capacity	References
BTEX	Biofiltration	Paecilomyces variotii	110 gC m^3 h^1	[131]
Toluene/styrene	Fixed-film bioscrubber	Microbacterium esteraromaticum SBS1–7	203 g·m^−3·h^−1	[132]
BTEX	Biodegradation	Variovorax paradoxus	71.3% of ethylbenzene, 61.1% of m-xylene and 54.8% of p-xylene	[133]
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol	Biotrickling filtration	Fungi and Bacillus Subtilis	95–98%	[134]
n-Hexane and dichloromethane	Biotrickling fil tration	Mycobacterium sp. and Hyphomicrobium sp.	12.68 g m^−3 h^−1 n-hexane and 30.28 g m^−3 h^−1 dichloromethane	[135]
n-Hexane	Biofiltration	Fungal biomass	3000 CFU/ml (optimum biomass)	[136]
Benzene	Biofiltration	Aspergillus	151.67 g m^−3 h^−1	[137]
Cyclo hexane and methyl acetate	Biotrickling filtration	Ochrobactrum intermedium	100%	[138]
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methanethiol, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide	Biotrickling filtration	Acidithiobacillus, Metallibacterium, and Thionomas	90.1%, 88.4%, 85.8%, and 61.8%	[139]
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine	Biofiltration	Fusarium solani	8.5 g m^−3 h^−1	[140]
Toluene	Biofiltration	Scedosporium apiospermum	258 g m^−3 h^−1	[141]
Phenol	Biofilter	Anaerobic microorganisms	>85%	[142]
Phenol	Biodegradation	Acinetobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Nitrospira sp., Rubrivivax sp.	~100%	[143]
Phenol	Biofilter	Microorganisms from municipal waste	~100%	[144]
Phenol	Biofilters	Chloroflexi and Planctomycetes	100 mg/L (effluent)	[145]
Toluene	Biotrickling filter	Cladophialophora	264.4 g m^−3·h^−1	[146]
2-Butoxyethanol	Biotrickling filter	Pseudomonas vancouverensis	72.8%	[147]
n-Hexane	Biotrickling filter	Toluene and 4-methyl-2-pentanone	10 g m^−3 h^−1	[148]
Benzene, toluene, xylene, and styrene	Biotrickling filter	Burkholderia, with little Achromobacte	90%	[149]
Toluene	Biotrickling filter	Pseudomonadaceae and Comamonadaceae	99.2%	[150]
Toluene	Biotrickling filter	Cell biochar beads seeded with Pseudomonas sp.	1134 g toluene/m^3. day	[151]
Toluene	Biotrickling filter	Fungi Rhamnolipids	176.8 g m^−3 h^−1 ; 114 g m^−3 h^−1 (rhamnolipids)	[152]
Toluene	Biotrickling filter	Fusarium oxysporum	98.1 g m^−3 h^−1	[153]
BTEX	Biofilter	Microbial growth enhanced by polyurethane	61%	[154]
Ethylbenzene	Biofilter	Bacterias	-	[155]
Sulfur dioxide and o-xylene	Biofilter	Pseudomonas sp., Paenibacillus sp., and Bacillus sp.	96.09%	[156]

Figure 3. Typical schematic diagram representing (a) biotrickling filter, (b) biofilter, (c) bioscrubber working principle [15].

Figure 4. Schematic diagram representing hybrid rotating drum biofilter [126].

Figure 5. Typical submerged aerated biofilter setup for the treatment of wastewater [129].

Figure 6. Schematic diagram representing the submerged aerated biofilter setup for the treatment of volatile organic compounds in pharmaceutical wastewater. (1) Magnetic stirrer, (2) Influent tank (3) Peristaltic pump, (4) Aquarium air pump, (5) Airflow meter, (6) Air inlet port, (7) Diffuser arrangement, (8) Packing media, (9) Manometer, (10) Connector for gas sampling, (11) Liquid drainage port, (12) Impinger, (13) Effluent collection tank [128].

Figure 7. The schematic representation of biofiltration system for the removal of low concentration nitrogen dioxide emitted from wastewater treatment plants [163].

Figure 8. Schematic picture of aerated fixed film biofilter reactor in the treatment of hospital wastewater [162].

Figure 9. Schematic illustration representing spray tower combined biofilter in the removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in textile dye wastewater treatment plant, which reduces the risk of respiration diseases [164].

Table 4. Key processes adopted in the treatment of polluted stormwater [184]

Pollutant in stormwater	Key processes
Sediment	Physical filtration is done by filter media Settlement during ponding
Nitrogen	Nitrification and denitrification Decomposition Adsorption Biotic assimilation by plants and microbes Physical filtration of sediment-bound fraction
Phosphorous	Decomposition Adsorption Biotic assimilation by plants and microbes Physical filtration of sediment-bound fraction
Heavy metals	Oxidation and reduction reactions Biotic assimilation by plants and microbes Physical filtration of sediment-bound fraction
Pathogens	Adsorption and desorption Physical filtration by filter media Natural or predation die-off
Organic micropollutants	Adsorption Biodegradation

Table 5. Various biological-based processes employed in the removal of heavy metals in the treatment of water

Heavy metals	Methods	Sources	Governed mechanism	References
Ni, Cd, Pb, Cr, Hg, and Co	Bioaccumulation	Azolla filiculoides	Phytoaccumulation	[197]
Fe, Pb, and Zn	Bioaccumulation	Azolla pinnata and Lemna minor	Phytoaccumulation	[198]
Pb(II), Cd(II), and Cr(VI)	Bioadsorption	Methane-oxidizing epipelon	Biofilm	[199]
Cr	Bioadsorption	Pseudomonas koreensis	Bioremediations	[200]
As	Bioadsorption	Biochar from rice straw	Electrostatic attraction, ion-exchange, and π–π/n-π interactions	[201]
Cd and Pb	Bioadsorption	Biochar from peanut shell	Freundlich isotherm model	[202]
Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Fe, Pb, and Zn	Bioadsorption	Phragmites australis and Typha latifolia	Retention	[203]
Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Cu, and As	Bioadsorption	Biochar from tree, weed, and crop	Adsorption	[204]
Cu(II) and Cd(II)	Bioadsorption	Micro-algae/bacterial biomass	Langmuir model	[205]
Cu(II), Cd(II), and Pb(II)	Biosorption	Biochar from vegetable biomass	Electrostatic attraction	[206]
Cu, Pb, and Zn	Biosorption	Beetroot fibers	Retention	[207]
Pb(II), Cd(II), Cu(II), and Ni(II),	Biosorption	Coco-peat biomass	Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm	[208]
Cd(II)	Biosorption	Biofilms from biotrickling filters	Langmuir isotherm model	[209]
Pb(II)	Biosorption	Cottonwood	Precipitation, electrostatic outer- and inner-sphere complexation	[210]
Pb(II)	Biosorption	Olive pips	Biosorption	[266]
Cu and Zn	Biosorption	Synechocystis sp., Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp.	Autoclave	[211]
Cu and Pb	Biosorption	Chara algae	Best pH	[212]
Cd, Pb, and Ni	Biosorption	Nitzschia palea and Navicula incerta	Filtration	[213]
Cd (II) and Ni (II)	Biosorption	Cymodocea nodosa	Langmuir isotherms	[214]
Cd(II) and Pb(II)	Biosorption	Pleurotus ostreatus	Immobilization	[215]
Ni(II)	Biosorption	Lycopersicum esculentum	Batch method	[216]
As(III)	Biofilm	Biochar and Periphytic biofilm	Pseudo-second-kinetic model	[217]
Cd	Biofiltration	Lamellidens marginalis	Bioaccumulation	[218]
Fe, Mn, and NH3-N	Biofiltration	Oxidizing bacteria	Chemical oxygen oxidation; water redox environment	[219]
Cr(VI)	Biofiltration	Pseudomonas taiwanensis	Michaelis–Menten kinetic model; Ottengraf-Van den Oever model	[220]
Pb and Cd	Biofiltration	Pistia stratiotes L., Salvinia auriculata Aubl., Salvinia minima Baker, and Azolla filiculoides	Rhizofiltration	[221]
Fe(II), Mn(II), and As(III)	Biofiltration	Gallionella, Leptothrix, Pseudomonas, Hyphomicrobium, Arthrobacter, Alcaligenes	Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)	[222]
As(III)	Biofiltration	Burkholderiaceae, Comamonadaceae, Rhodobacteraceae, and Xanthomonadaceae	Autotrophy; Heterotrophic oxidation	[223]
Pb and Cd	Biofiltration	Polylactic acid – fish scale extracted hydroxyapatite (HAp)	Ion exchange, dissolution, and precipitation on HAp	[188]
Zn and Pb	Biofiltration	Stormwater	Bioretention	[224]
Pb(II)	Biofiltration	Furcraea andina	Biofilm-forming bacterium	[225]
Cd, Cr, Co, Ni, and Pb	Biofiltration	Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna minor and Azolla pinnat	Bioaccumulation	[226]
Cr, Co, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn	Biofiltration	Eichhornia crassipes	Bioaccumulation	[227]
Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, As, and Cr	Biofiltration	Taxiphyllum Barbieri	Phytofiltration	[228]
Ni(II) and Co(II)	Biofiltration	Escherichia coli	Biofilm formation	[229]
Ni, Cd, Cr, Fe, Pb, and Cu	Biofiltration	Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata	Bioremoval	[230]
Pb	Biofiltration	Leuconostoc mesentroides and Lactobacillus case	Biofilm	[231]
Cr(VI)	Biofiltration	Cellulose; Eichhornia crassipes	Langmuir isotherms	[232]
As and Hg	Biofiltration	Activated coconut shell	Biosorption	[233]
As	Bio-oxidation/adsorptive filtration method	Acidothiobacillus ferrooxidans	Filtration and adsorption	[234]
As(II), Ca(II), Mg(II), Ni(II), and Zn(II)	Biopolymer ion exchange	Organic polymer pectin hybrid	Ion exchange	[235]
Zn (II), Pb (II), Cr (III) and Cr (VI)	Biopolymer filtration	Starch	Ultrafiltration	[236]
Cr(VI)	Biopolymer-sorption	Biocomposite beads (alginate)	Sorption process	[237]
Cr(III), Pb(II), and As(V)	Biopolymer-sorption	Carboxymethyl cellulose and alginate-based hybrid	Sorption process	[238]
Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn	Bioremediation	Serratia rubidaea NCTC12971	Microbial detoxification	[239]
Cd, Pb, and Ni	Bioremediation	Phragmites australis	Phytoremediation	[240]
Fe, Cu, Pb, Cd, and Zn	Bioremediation	Cyperus rotundus	Phytoremediation	[241]
Tl, Cd, Zn, and Pb	Bioremediation	Callitriche cophocarpa	Phytoremediation	[242]
As, Cd, and Hg	Bioremediation	Eichhornia crassipes	Phytoremediation	[243]

Figure 10. Typical stormwater biofilter working model [184].

Figure 11. Diagram representing the 3D-printed monolithic biofilters based on a polylactic acid (PLA) – hydroxyapatite (HAp) biocomposite for heavy metal removal from an aqueous medium. (a) Reference PLA filter with a uniform porosity. (b) Corresponding PLA/Hap filter. (c) Reference PLA filter with gradient porosity. (d) PLA/Hap filter [188].

Figure 12. Schematic illustration of amyloid fibrils coupled with activated carbon membrane as an adsorber of heavy metal ions. (a) Structure of the β-lactoglobulin protein with the strongest heavy metal-binding motif highlighted, 121-cys, with a lead ion attached. (b) Amyloid-forming 121-cys-containing fragment (LACQCL) from β-lactoglobulin with docked Pb metal ions. (c) Schematic representation of heavy metal ion purification by amyloid–carbon adsorbers, and photographs of Na2PdCl4 solution changing color from yellow to colorless after filtration due to the adsorption of palladium heavy metal ion pollutants onto the composite membrane. (d) SEM image showing the surface of the composite membrane, with the visual aspect of the membrane shown in the inset. (e) Higher-magnification SEM image of the membrane, demonstrating the assembly of the amyloid fibrils onto the activated carbon surface [259].

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