An overview of microalgae biomass as a sustainable aquaculture feed ingredient: food security and circular economy

Figures & data

Figure 1. Technology process lineup for the production of beneficial fish-derived food by using an algae-based feed.

Table 1. Presents the benefits and drawbacks of an alternative fish diet

Alternate Feed	Benefits	Drawbacks	Ref.
Guar meal	Guar meal may be substituted for soy meal without harming growth in certain fish.	This product includes antinutritional and anti-digestive substances such as residual gum, saponin, phytate, and protease inhibitor tannin. Gastrointestinal evacuation is slow. Indigestible amino acids. Oil production and guar gum usage affect the availability of guar meals.	[22,23]
Macroalgae	Bioactive compounds from macroalgae can help farmed fish.	Complex polysaccharides are indigestible Excess heavy metals The probable presence of phlorotannins, lectins, phyto acids, trypsins, and amylase inhibiting substances	[24]
Yeast	Lignocellulosic waste can grow Yeast protein is beneficial for fish, except for its low methionine content. Due to a rapid increase	Yeast protein is low in sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine.	[25,26]
Insects	Food waste may be used as a source of nutrients	Most insect diets were lacking in methionine and cysteine. Antinutritional chitin is reported.	[27]
Blood meal (cow blood)	The protein content is high. Lysine-rich	Methionine deficiency Protein digestibility is greatly influenced by heat sensitivity and drying conditions.	[28,29]
Hydrolyzed feather meal	Hydrolyzed feather meal is rich in cystine (74–61%) and protein.	Not easily digested Low in lysine and methionine (2 % of the crude protein) (1 % crude protein)	[30,31]
Wheat	Protein content is low (11%).	Wheat<apos;>s high starch content makes it a primary source of energy (usually more than 70%). There is a deficiency of lysine.	[32,33]
Microalgae and Algal oil	Microalgae<apos;>s rapid rate of growth A broad selection of species is available, each with a unique set of characteristics. ω-3 fatty acid-rich Contains antioxidants, colorants, and has a probiotic impact	Formulated feeds have a high production cost. Microalgae with rigid cell walls are difficult to digest.	[34,35,40]

Figure 2. Metabolites produced by microalgae during their photosynthetic activity.

Table 2. Nutrient content of several microalgae species

Microalgal strains	Composition (%)			Ref.
	Lipids	Protein	Carbohydrates
Haematococcus pluvialis	15	48	27	[103]
Dunaliella	25–75	50–80	10–25	[61,62]
Botryococcus braunii	33	39.61	2.38	[63]
Nannochloropsis sp.	22–31	33–44	8–14	[155]
Botryococcus	25–75	3–10	17–21	[64,65]
Scenedesmus quadricauda	1.9	47	21–52	[156]
Chlamydomonas	20–25	47–50	15–20	[66,67]
Synechococcus sp.	11	63	15	[68]
C. vulgaris	14–22	12–17	1–58	[69]
Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina)	7–23	57–65	20–30	[70,71]
Isochrysis galbana	12–14	50–56	10–17	[155]
Porphyridium cruentum	5.78–7.55	27.7–40.8	22.8–39.3	[72]
Spirulina maxima	6–7	60–71	13–16	[155]
Tetraselmis maculata	3	52	15	[156]
Nannochloropsis granulata (CCMP-535)	33.5	23.6	36.2	[73–75,182]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum (CCMP-1327)	18.2	39.6	25.2
Arthrospira platensis	14.2	55.8	22.2
Tetraselmis chuii (PLY-429)	12.3	46.5	25.0

Table 3. Microalgal biomass as an alternative or supplement to fishmeal and fish oil

Microalgae species	Aquaculture species	Fish oil/fish meal/dietary inclusion level replacement	Effects of algae biomass	Ref.
Schizochytrium	Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)	4% inclusion in the diet	Although shrimp survival, digestive enzyme activity, and fatty acid content were not affected, their specific growth rate was much higher than in the control group.	[118]
Dunaliella salina	Giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)	5–10% incorporation in feed	The immune system and antioxidants (superoxide dismutase and catalase) improved significantly and the survival rate was significantly boosted.	[119]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)	6% replacement of fish meal	There is no negative impact on growth, protein, lipids, energy, ash, growth performance, etc., in the feed that is used.	[109]
Nannochloropsis sp. and Isochrysis sp.	Juvenile Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua)	15% fish meal protein replacement	Increased feed intake and fish growth. Survival, feed conversion ratios, and muscle ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acid levels did not differ between the treatment groups.	[120]
Schizochytrium sp.	Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)	100% replacement of fish oil	However, the survival rate did not alter substantially.	[85]
Nannochloropsis gaditana, T. chuii, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata)	0.5 and 1% inclusion in feed	Increased defensive activity	[121]
Chlorella vulgaris	Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)	6–8% fish meal substitute	M. rosenbergii postlarvae had a faster growth rate, a better immunological response (total haemocyte count and prophenoloxidase activity), and were resistant to Aeromonas hydrophila infection.	[122]
Arthrospira sp.	Golden barb (Puntius gelius)	20% fishmeal substitute	Fish growth rates have increased significantly.	[123]
Pavlova viridis	European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)	Fish oil replacement 50–100%	In terms of growth performance and nutrient consumption, there are no detrimental consequences on fish.	[124]
Nannochloropsis sp.
Nanofrustulum sp.	Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), common carp (Cyprinus carpio)	fish meal replacement 5 or 10%	Algal meal outperformed fish meal in terms of growth and feed intake, indicating that it may be used in place of fish meal.	[125]
Tetraselmis sp.	Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)
Arthrospira platensis	Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)	0.5–2% inclusion in feed	Enhanced fish health through tissue protection and antioxidant effects	[126]
Arthrospira sp.	Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)	Replacing fish meal by up to 43%	Unlike corn-gluten meal control, there was no deleterious impact on growth or feed consumption.	[242]

Table 4. Algal pigment compositions and their health benefits

Microalgal species	Pigments	Health benefits	Ref.
Haematococcus	astaxanthin	Pink colored pigment, Antioxidant, Improved disease resistance, faster growth	[134]
Spirulina	β-carotene, astaxanthin	Yellow, orange, and red-colored pigment, antioxidants, improved disease resistance, faster growth	[135]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum	fucoxanthin	Golden and yellow coloration, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory	[136]
D. saline	carotenoids	Photo-protection, camouflage, and signaling enhance immune system	[137].
Chlorella vulgaris.	fucoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein	Yellow-colored pigment, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory	[182]
Scenedesmus sp.	lutein	Greens and orange-yellow, Antioxidant, reduce inflammation	[75]

Table 5. Algal monosaccharide compositions

Microalgal strains	Monosaccharide composition (%)				Ref.
	Arabinose	Glucose	Galactose	Xylose
S. platensis	1.4	24.1	16.4	6.1	[165]
Arthrospira platensis	–	38.3	36.4	0.7	[166]
Chlorella sp.	34	20	41	–	[167]
Porphyra ochotensis	–	5.3	30.4	1.2	[168]
C. vulgaris JSC-6	1.6	54.9	–	2.3	[169]
C. marina	37.6	30.3	10.0	–	[166]

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