Comparison of anticancer activity of biocompatible ZnO nanoparticles prepared by solution combustion synthesis using aqueous leaf extracts of Abutilon indicum, Melia azedarach and Indigofera tinctoria as biofuels

Figures & data

Figure 1. Powder XRD pattern of (a) ZnO (LA), (b) ZnO (AI-1), (c) ZnO (AI-2), (d) ZnO (AI-3), (e) ZnO (MA-1), (f) ZnO (MA-2), (g) ZnO (MA-3), (h) ZnO (IT-1), (i) ZnO (IT-2) and (j) ZnO (IT-3).

Table 1. Average crystallite size of ZnO NPs.

Sample	Volume of the fuel used (mL)	Average crystallite size (nm)
ZnO (LA)	–	13
ZnO (AI-1)	12	07
ZnO (AI-2)	15	11
ZnO (AI-3)	18	12
ZnO (MA-1)	15	07
ZnO (MA-2)	18	09
ZnO (MA-3)	21	18
ZnO (IT-1)	10	08
ZnO (IT-2)	12.5	11
ZnO (IT-3)	15	12

Figure 2. SEM images of (a) ZnO (LA), (b) ZnO (AI-2), (c) ZnO (MA-2) and (d) ZnO (IT-2).

Figure 3. TEM images of (a) ZnO (LA), (b) ZnO (AI-2), (c) ZnO (MA-2) and (d) ZnO (IT-2).

Figure 4. TG curves of (a) ZnO (LA), (b) ZnO (AI-2), (c) ZnO (MA-2) and (d) ZnO (IT-2).

Table 2. BET surface area values of ZnO NPs.

Sample	Surface area (m^2/g)	t-plot micropore volume (cm^3/g)	BJH adsorption average pore diameter (4V/A) (Å)	Pore size BJH desorption average pore diameter (4V/A)	Maximum pore volume (cm³/g)
ZnO (LA)	19.2904	−0.001307	90.792	90.406	at P/Po = 0.147730475: 0.007252
ZnO (AI-2)	25.7731	−0.002031	83.376	80.717	at P/Po = 0.147071663: 0.010090
ZnO (MA-2)	89.5467	0.004209	56.107	52.896	at P/Po = 0.147174969: 0.035613
ZnO (IT-2)	36.7315	−0.003240	71.863	71.511	at P/Po = 0.147065682: 0.013672

Figure 5. Wide range XPS spectrum of (a) ZnO (LA), (b) ZnO (AI-2), (c) ZnO (MA-2) and (d) ZnO (IT-2).

Table 3. Results of phytochemical screening of the aqueous leaf extracts of A. indicum, M. azedarach and I. tinctoria.

Sample	Sl. No.	Name of the phytochemical	Molecular formula
A. indicum	1	Benzenemethanol, 2-(2-aminopropoxy)-3-methyl	C11H17NO2
	2	Chlorozotocin	C9H16ClN3O7
	3	9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid 2-[(trimethylsilyl]oxy]-1- [[[trimethylsilyl)oxy]methyl]ethyl ester], [Z,Z,Z]	C27H52O4SiO2
M. azedarach	1	4-Hydroxy-2-methyl acetophenone	C9H10O2
	2	Tetracetyl –d-xylonic nitrile	C14H17NO9
	3	(2S,3S,4R,5R,6R)-5-amino-2-(aminomethyl)-6- [(2R,3S,4R,5S)-5-[(1R,2R,3S,5R,6S)-3,5-diamino-2-[(2S,3R,4R,5S,6R)-3-amino-4,5-dihydroxy-6- (hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxy-6- hydroxycyclohexyl]oxy-4-hydroxy-2- (hydroxymethyl)oxolan-3-yl]oxyoxane-3,4-diol	C23H45N5O14
	4	Ribofuranosylhypoxanthine	C11H14N4O5
I. tinctoria	1	Dimethylsulfoxonium formylmethylide	C4H8O2S
	2	2-Methyl-9-β-ribofuranosylhypoxanthine	C11H14N4O5
	3	1-Deoxy-d-mannitol, Imidazole, 2-amino-5[(2 carboxy)vinyl]	C6H7N3O2
	4	5-Amino-2-(aminomethyl)-6-[5-[3,5-diamino-2-[3-amino-4,5-dihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxy-6-hydroxycyclohexyl]oxy-4-hydroxy-2- (hydroxymethyl)oxolan-3-yl]oxyoxane-3,4-diol	C23H45N5O14
	5	6,9,12-Octadecatriemoic acid, phenylmethyl ester	C25H36O2
	6	Androstane, 11,17-dione, 3 [(trimethylsilyl)oxy], 17 [O- (phemylmethyl)oxime], (3α, 5α)-	C29H43NO3Si

Figure 6. GC-MS analysis of the leaf extracts of (a) A. Indicum, (b) M. azedarach and (c) I. tinctoria.

Table 4. Results of GC-MS analysis of the leaf extracts of A. indicum, M. azedarach and I. tinctoria.

		Result					Result
Constituent	Test	AI	MA	IT	Constituent	Test	AI	MA	IT
Alkaloids	Mayer’s reagent test	−	+	+	Glycoside	Bomtrager’s test	+	−	−
	Wagner’s reagent test	−	+	+	Tannins and	Killer–Killiani test	+	+	−
	Hager’s reagent test	−	+	+	Phenolic	Ferric chloride test	+	+	−
Carbohydrates	Molish’s test	+	+	+	compounds	Lead acetate test	+	+	−
	Barfoed’s test	+	+	+	Saponins	Froth test	+	−	+
Reducing sugars	Fehling’s test	+	−	+	Proteins and	Biuret test	−	+	−
	Benedicts’s test	+	−	+	Amino acids	Ninhydrin test	−	+	−
Flavonoids	Alkaline reagent test	−	+	−	Triterpenoids	Salwonski test	−	+	−
	Lead acetate test	−	+	−	and	Libermann and
Glycoside	Legal’s test	+	−	−	Steroids	Burchard’s test	−	+	−

+ is present, − is absent.

Figure 7. Determination of IC₅₀ values of (a) ZnO (LA), (b) ZnO (AI-2), (c) ZnO (MA-2) and (d) ZnO (IT-2) on DU-145 cell lines [data represent mean ± SD (standard deviation)].

Figure 8. Determination of IC₅₀ values of (a) ZnO (LA), (b) ZnO (AI-2), (c) ZnO (MA-2) and (d) ZnO (IT-2) on Calu-6 cell lines (data represent mean ± SD).

Table 5. IC₅₀ (μg/mL) of ZnO NPs on DU-145 and Calu-6 cells.

Sample	DU-145	Calu-6
ZnO (LA)	102.22	111.3
ZnO (AI-2)	88.07	98.91
ZnO (MA-2)	34.06	59.67
ZnO (IT-2)	48.05	90.66

Table 6. Haemolysis of blood by ZnO NPs.

Sample concentration	ZnO (LA)	ZnO (AI-2) % Haemolysis (± SD)	ZnO (MA-2)	ZnO (IT-2)
Triton X-100		+ve control
PBS		−ve control
0.25 mg/mL	1.12 ± 0.19	1.12 ± 0.28	1.54 ± 0.22	1.02 ± 0.22
0.5 mg/mL	1.38 ± 0.20	1.64 ± 0.35	2.19 ± 0.22	1.38 ± 0.18
1.0 mg/mL	2.02 ± 0.49	2.21 ± 0.14	2.84 ± 0.24	2.12 ± 0.12
2.5 mg/mL	3.12 ± 0.84	3.55 ± 0.54	3.52 ± 0.34	3.07 ± 0.86
5.0 mg/mL	9.98 ± 0.32	10.02 ± 0.42	10.38 ± 0.16	9.28 ± 1.02