Climate change adaptation by subsistence and smallholder farmers: Insights from three agro-ecological regions of Nepal

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of Nepal showing the study sites within the study districts

Table 1. Characteristics of the three Districts (Chitwan, Dhading, and Sindhupalchwk) used in this study including key climatic parameters

Features	District
	Chitwan	Dhading	Sindhupalchowk
Representing AEZs	Terai	Hill	Mountain
Area (km^2)	2,238	1,926	2,542
Population	579,984	336,067	287,798
NAPA Ranking	High	High	Moderate
Administrative units:	(1)	None	None
Metropolitan city	1	0	0
Municipalities	6	13	12
Average annual rainfall (mm)	1,784	1,684	2,035
Average monsoon rainfall (mm)	1,461	1,366	1,688
Average winter rainfall (mm)	45	48	52
Annual maximum temperature (°C)	29.5	22.8	17.4
Monsoon maximum temperature (°C)	32.5	26.2	21
Winter maximum temperature (°C)	23	17	11.9
Annual minimum temperature (°C)	17.4	11.8	7
Monsoon minimum temperature (°C)	23.8	17.7	13.0
Winter minimum temperature	9.2	4.7	0.

*Temperature and rainfall data are extracted from Department of hydrology and meteorology DHM (2017)

Table 2. Main categories of adaptation being employed by subsistence smallholder farmers

Theme	Total % (n = 384)	Chitwan (%) (n = 128)	Dhading (%) (n = 128)	Sindhupalchowk (n = 128)
Crop and Varietal adjustments	87	100	76	86
Fertilizer management	79	88	84	65
Farm operations time management	58	78	55	40
Adoption of technologies	45	66	50	20
Soil and Water management	40	42	39	38
Diversification of income sources and agricultural practices	23	21	38	10
Migration	22	31	6	30
Access to financial resources and risk reduction measures	20	0	39	22

Table 3. List of adaptation interventions provided to the farmers by the various organizations as reported by the key informants (n = 33)

Major role/focus	Description	Organizations
Soil and Water management	Rainwater harvesting, supporting infrastructure, promotion of drip irrigation, spray water use, pasture mulching	District Agriculture Development Office (DADO), Oxfam DRR/NCCA, Community Self Reliance Center (CSRC), CARE Nepal
Pest management	Pesticides provision, integrated pest management	DADO, Community Self Reliance Center (CSRC)
Fertilizer management	Compost management and improved shed	PRAYAS Nepal
Technology	Climate-smart agriculture technologies/greenhouses program/climate field schools	DADO, District coordination committee (DCC), Forward Nepal, Save the Children (Sabal program)
Agricultural production, crops and cropping system	Development of both health and cold tolerant, drought-tolerant species, organic farming, tunnel farming, agriculture production, strengthening, and agri-based micro-enterprise development	DADO, Resource Identification and Management Society Nepal (RIMS-Nepal), Community Self Reliance Center (CSRC), Municipality (ward office)
Capacity building	Training, strengthening the local community, farmer business school	District coordination committee (DCC), Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research, and Development (LI-BIRD), CARE Nepal, MANK (Mahila atma nirbhar kendra) Nepal, Heifer International, Rural Reconstruction Nepal (RRN)
Sensitization	Awareness	Oxfam DRR/NCCA/District coordination committee (DCC), Forward Nepal, Heifer International, Municipality (ward office), Save the Children (Sabal program)
Support livelihood	Livelihood supporting physical and natural assets creation/cash for food and cash for assets	Resource Identification and Management Society Nepal (RIMS-Nepal), MANK Nepal
Disaster risk reduction	Disaster risk management, early warning	Department of hydrology and meteorology (DHM), CARE Nepal, Forward Nepal, Rural Reconstruction Nepal (RRN), Save the Children (Sabal program)
Policies/regulations	Coordinate in policy formulation, policy analysis	Oxfam DRR/NCCA, Food First Information & Action Network (FIAN Nepal), Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research, and Development (LI-BIRD)
Information dissemination	Provide information about the weather phenomenon/risk minimization information/flood warnings information/flood alert through SMS/weekly advisory to the farmers/	Animal Health Research Division (AHRD), Nepal agricultural research council (NARC), Department of hydrology and meteorology (DHM)
Researches	Conducting research	Animal Health Research Division (AHRD), Nepal agricultural research council (NARC)

*Note: Climate change is incorporated as a cross-cutting issue in organizations’ agendas and programs. Additionally, adaptation interventions supported by these organizations included in this table are the major adaptation interventions mentioned at the time of interview

Table 4. Main categories of constraints in adaptation to climate change faced by subsistence smallholder farmers and the percentage of farming households surveyed (n = 384) who are facing each constraint theme

Theme	Response (%)	Chitwan (%)	Dhading (%)	Sindhupalchowk (%)
1. Insufficient support from the government	82	91	72	83
2. Financial constraints	78	73	79	81
3. Lack of Technology	76	81	77	68
4. Lack of awareness/communication and information dissemination on climate change, its impacts, and adaptation	70	66	70	77
5. Lack of weather information/forecast or information about climate change	61	65	56	61
6. Access to support organizations	59	77	60	40

DHM. (2017). Observed climate trend analysis in the districts and physiographic regions of Nepal (1971–2014). (Department of Hydrology and Meteorology ed.). Kathmandu, Nepal: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Population and Environment.

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