Inner-city development experiences of Germany: Lessons for Pakistan, Ghana, Kenya, and Rwanda in urban development

Figures & data

Figure 1. Pakistan in the Asian context and its urban areas.

Source: Authors’ Construct, 2023

Figure 2. Ghana in the African context and its urban areas.

Source: Authors’ Construct, 2023

Figure 3. Kenya in the African context and its urban areas.

Source: Authors’ construct, 2023

Figure 4. Rwanda in the African context and its urban areas.

Source: Authors’ Construct, 2023

Table 1. Learning contextualization for inner-city development in Pakistan, Ghana, Kenya, and Rwanda: a reflection on Germany’s urban development approach

Germany			Case 1: Pakistan		Case 2: Ghana		Case 3: Kenya		Case 4: Rwanda
No.	Principles for inner-city development	Challenges and way-outs	Current realities	Potential challenges and lessons that can be learned	Current realities	Potential challenges and lessons that can be learned	Current realities	Potential challenges and lessons that can be learned	Current realities	Potential challenges and lessons that can be learned
1	Give priority to inner-urban development before greenfield development in the urban planning and development agenda	The development of greenfields is easier and cost-convenient than in inner-city areas. However, policy commitment is helping Germany to promote the development of its inner cities.	Current emphasis is placed on Peri-Urban Plans and Land-Use (Re)Classification and discourses on themes such as “Reimagining cities” and “Revitalizing urban planning”. The weak economy is affecting the mobilization of economic resources to support urban development	Due to incessant urbanization, the inner-urban areas are predominantly informal. Having a plan for inner-city development through a consensual approach is required, taking into account intense commitment to the plan. Also, putting growth strategies in place transform the economy will be useful	Inner-city development has gained policy attention for the past few years. This includes the recent establishment of the Ministry of Inner City and Zongo Development to engineer the growth and well-being of the inner-city area. The functionality of and economic resources for the new Ministry of Inner City and Zongo Development is curtailed due to severe economic challenges	Municipal governments are (financially) weak and may “kowtow” to the demands and pressure from politicians and private actors to use their greenfields for self-interest purposes. A strong commitment and support from national-level institutions, and enforcement of the legislation may help.	Inner-city development is prioritized in the master plans (e.g., Nairobi Integrated Urban Development Master Plan, 2014).	Urbanization is accelerated through horizontal spatial growth, and despite the recognition of inner-city development in plans, in practice, institutional bottlenecks impede such an agenda. Institutional transformation and commitment to plan are needed	Inner-city development has received significant attention in policies (e.g., National Strategy for Transformation (NST1,2017–20), National urban housing policies (2008), Kigali Conceptual master plan 2008, and Kigali City Master Plan (2013, revised 2020).	Rigid Zoning regulations hamper the development of residential as well as commercial buildings. Expropriation in favor of investments pushes people into the greenfield. Spatial plans must be aligned with the national land-use plan to accommodate all urban dwellers while ensuring optimal use of land.
2	Brownfield redevelopment and structural adaptation	Redevelopment of brownfields deprives municipalities of revenues generated from such sites. Municipalities are therefore incentivized through funding programs due to the buoyant nature of the economy.	Current emphasis is placed on Peri-Urban Plans and Land-Use (Re)Classification. However, discussions on themes such as “Reimagining cities” and “Revitalizing urban planning” are ongoing.	The development of brownfields may be expensive, especially looking at the financial constraints of local governments and the weak nature of the economy. Local governments can liaise with private actors for such development for economic gains.	Brownfield redevelopment is prioritized in the 20-year National Spatial Development Framework-NSDF (2015 –2035) National Urban Policy Framework and Action Plan, 2012, and the National Housing Policy (NHP), 2015.	Municipal planning is financially constrained. Bidding for funding from international organizations as allowed by the law and private sector participation in such interventions may help	Master planning considers brownfield redevelopment and urban renewal strategies.	The Government’s commitments to its master planning and Vision are needed as brownfield redevelopment and urban renewable strategies are spelled out in plans.	Re-use of old buildings and factories in Kigali and Secondary cities by local government authorities is acknowledged in Rwanda’s Vision 2020	Funding may be a challenge but privatization of government buildings and change of use of many abandoned factories would be of great benefit to the development of the inner city.
3	Mixed land-use development characterized by local accessibility	Urban neighborhoods usually slow down mixed uses due to their rejection and contestation against certain types of land use and projects, the timing and duration of construction. Well-functioning participatory planning has helped in promoting inner-city development	Mixed land-use planning is pursued, and can further be strengthened through the Land Utilization Ordinance which mandates local governments to develop binding mixed land-use plans	Whilst mixed land-use planning is in existence, its implementation is challenged due to weak institutions and legislation. A commitment to enforcement of the laws is needed to make this principle work	Land-use planning calls for mixed land use (at least on paper)	Weak institutions affect the mixed planning implementation process. Institutional strengthening and realistic implementation plans are needed.	Planning (institutional and regulatory) recognizes mixed land use in cities	Public planning institutions with no clear-cut roles, and financial challenges. The Government’s commitment to its flagship projects on mixed land-use planning could help	There are planning efforts to ensure the implementation of elaborated master plans and other local plans about national strategies and policies to avoid conflicting land use. Mixed-use zoning regulations were adopted to ensure zoning overlays in order to promote the efficient use of land and promote the integrated urban growth	Cultural challenges and limitations do not allow people to adapt to mixed neighborhoods. There is a need for sensitization to encourage people to start adapting to mixed areas.
4	Compact, functionally diversified, and attractive built environment in balance with green and open spaces	-	There is a resurgence in master planning and discourses on themes such as “Reimagining cities” and “Revitalizing urban planning” offering a spot for the principle to be integrated into the new thinking about planning	-	The NSDF provides a holistic approach to spearheading a functionally attractive and compact (inner) urban development.	-	The Integrated Urban Development Master Plan, the Eastlands Urban Renewal Plan, and the Kenya Vision 2030 provide a comprehensive framework for sustainable and integrative urban development	-	There are overlapping responsibilities of some institutions in the development of the built environment, though comprehensive development plans exist.	There is a need for a clear definition of public space, and participatory planning and implementation of master plans can be a tool to have a livable inner city.
5	Conservation of viable existing urban structures and historical buildings	-	Historical and colonial buildings and monuments of national heritage exist but are in a poor state requiring planning attention.	While funding may be a challenge, the national government can set up a funding program considering its economic situation, to support municipalities to protect and maintain such structures that define the people and their past for national pride and patriotism.	Colonial buildings, monuments, historical places, and traditional infrastructure that define the country’s past are in a poor state	Limited funding and poor maintenance culture are key challenges. This calls for a coordinated effort of concerned planning institutions (e.g., the Ministry of Tourism, and Local Government Authorities)	Planning of historical projects/infrastructure has limited planning attention	A renewed interest in planning for historical infrastructure is needed. Also, institutional bottlenecks, legislation enforcement, and deficiencies in participatory planning must be dealt with	-	-
6	Establishment and conservation of open and natural urban spaces and their functional enhancement	-	Green space integration for recreational purposes is not new, but Pakistan’s context realities favor the use of such spaces in schools and workplaces, as well as tourist sites instead of public areas that may experience under-utilization.	A pilot project can be initiated in some carefully selected urban inner-city neighborhoods will be useful	Green space planning measures are in place already, but outcomes have been poor so far leading to a “green for concrete” phenomenon.	A special green- integration program may be necessary to incentivize local authorities to safeguard, establish, and expand open and natural spaces. This requires dealing with institutional bottlenecks	The Integrated Urban Development Master Plan, the Eastlands Urban Renewal Plan, and the Kenya Vision provide a comprehensive framework for green planning, but increasing urbanization affects green areas	Institutional deficiencies and rapid urbanization must be dealt with for proper planning of green areas.	Conservation of open and natural urban spaces is acknowledged in Rwanda’s Vision 2020.	Increasing the already existing efforts among the institutions in charge of urban space to protect these spaces and sensitize people to use these spaces in their recreational activities will be useful

Source: Authors’ Construct, 2023