Socio-economic and environmental impacts of land acquisition for tourism development in Vietnam

Figures & data

Table 1. Compensation, support, and resettlement for land users in the land acquisition process

	Decree No.197/2004/ND-CP^1	Decree No.69/2009/ND-CP^2	Decree No.47/2014/ND-CP^3
Scope of Compen-sation	Compensation or support for the whole land area recovered by the state. Compensation or support for the existing property attached to the land and for expenses invested in the land recovered by the state.	Compensation in the form of a land exchange with the same use purpose. If no land is available for compensation, they are entitled to compensation in cash calculated based on the price of land with the same use purpose. Compensation for remaining investment expenses.	Compensation for land. Compensation for remaining investment expenses. (3) Compensation for losses caused by land-linked houses and construction work upon expropriation by the state. (4) Compensation for losses due to the restricted use of land and losses caused to land-linked properties concerning land in safety corridors upon the construction of public works with safety corridors. (5) Compensation and support for land upon expropriation for land allocated ultra vires before 1 July 2004. (6) Compensation and support for land when the real-life area is different from what is stated in land use rights papers upon expropriation. (7) Compensation, support, and resettlement to users of land in the area suffering environmental pollution and likely threat to human life; users of land susceptible to landslide, sinking, and other natural catastrophes imposing threat to human life.
Means of supports	Support for relocation, support for life stabilization, support for job-change training, and other supports for persons who have land recovered. Support for stabilization of production and life in the resettlement areas. Resettlement: dwelling houses/new residential land/money for acquiring new residences.	Support for relocation and resettlement in case of recovery of residential land. Support for life and production stabilization, and support for job-change training and job creation in case of recovery of agricultural land. Support upon recovery of agricultural land in residential areas, or garden or pond land not recognized as residential land. Other means of support.	(1) Support for stabilization of life and production. (2) Support for training, job change, and job seeking: - for households directly involved in agricultural production; - households and individuals whose inhabited land is linked with business and services. (3) Support for resettlement. (4) Other means of support.

Source: Collected by the authors from various sources.

Figure 1. The location of the Phuong Hoang golf course project.

Source: Google Maps

Figure 2. Images of the Phuong Hoang Golf Course.

Source: https://maichautourist.vn/ and https://www.golfasian.com/golf-courses/vietnam-golf-courses/hanoi/phoenix-golf-resort/#shadowbox-1/7/IMG_1797.JPG., accessed on 14^th April, 2021

Figure 3. The location of the FLC Sam Son Beach and golf resort development project.

Source: Google Map

Figure 4. Images of the FLC Sam Son Beach and golf Resort.

Source: http://flcsamson.com.vn/en/contact-us.html and https://batdongsanexpress.vn/flc-sam-son.html, accessed on 10^th December, 2020

Table 2. Results of the descriptive analysis

	Variables	Median	Mode	Variance	Min	Max
	Socio-Economic impacts:
1	Prices of products and services in the area	3	3	0.529	3	5
2	Prices of land and housing in the area	4	3	0.744	1	5
3	Income sources	2	1	1.918	1	5
4	Jobs offered by the project	4	4	0.480	2	5
5	Quality of local public infrastructure contributed by the project	4	4	1.209	1	5
6	Quantity of local public infrastructure contributed by the project	4	4	1.010	1	5
7	Criminals and drugs in the local area	3	3	0.904	1	4
8	Local safety due to outsider labourers working for the project	3	3	0.429	3	5
9	Contribution to local recreational facilities through the project	3	3	0.175	1	5
10	Opportunities for locals to benefit from the project’s facilities	3	3	0.073	2	4
	Environmental impacts:
11	Depletion of natural resources (forest, fishing, water, soil)	3	3	0.794	1	5
12	Noise, pollution, and waste	4	3	1.152	1	5
13	Changing spatial morphology	4	3	1.215	1	5
	Land acquisition process:
14	Participation in the land acquisition process	4	3	0.987	1	5
15	Compensation and support package after making a complaint	3	3	0.180	3	5
16	Areas of land and housing	2	2	0.486	1	3
17	Access to the beach or forest	1	1	0.551	1	3

Source: Own analysis

Table 3. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test for the land acquisition process in both case study areas

	Participation in _the land acquisition process	Compensation _support _after _complaining	Areas _land &housing_- after _land acquisition	Access _beach_ forest
Mann-Whitney U	527,500	658,500	370,000	778,500
Wilcoxon W	1473,500	1604,500	1316,000	1481,500
Z	-2,747	-2,304	-4,488	-,185
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	,006	,021	,000	,853

Grouping Variable:Location

Table 4. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test for the social, economic, and environmental conditions after land acquisition in both case study areas

	Price land housing	Price product _service	Income _source	Job local _people	Quality public _infrastructure	Quantity of public _infrastructure	Criminal _drugs	Local safety _outsider	Local recreational facilities	Benefit project facilities	Depletion natural resources	Pollution	Attractive _appearance
Mann-Whitney U	386,500	756,500	748,000	732,500	714,000	665,500	790,000	550,000	792,500	788,500	665,000	647,500	540,500
Wilcoxon W	1332,500	1702,500	1451,000	1435,500	1417,000	1368,500	1736,000	1496,000	1738,500	1734,500	1368,000	1593,500	1486,500
Z	-4,186	-,461	-,476	-,684	-,839	-1,370	-,057	-3,185	-,056	-,148	-1,366	-1,493	-2,605
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	,000	,645	,634	,494	,401	,171	,954	,001	,956	,882	,172	,135	,009

Grouping Variable:Location

Table 5. Model fitting information, goodness-of-fit, and test of parallel lines

	Model Fitting Information	Goodness-of-Fit		Test of Parallel lines
		Pearson	Deviance
Price of land & housing	.006	.306	.961	.325
Local safety	.030	.991	.990	.541
Pollution	.033	.140	.985	.003

Table 6. Parameter estimation for the price of land and housing

		Estimate	Std. Error	Wald	df	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
							Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Threshold	[price_land_housing = 1]	-6.819	2.007	11.542	1	.001	-10.752	-2.885
	[price_land_housing = 3]	-2.476	1.718	2.076	1	.150	-5.843	.892
	[price_land_housing = 4]	-.551	1.690	.106	1	.744	-3.864	2.761
Location	[Location=1]	-2.302	.629	13.406	1	.000	-3.534	-1.070
	[Location=2]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=1]	-.972	1.210	.645	1	.422	-3.344	1.400
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=2]	2.125	1.428	2.216	1	.137	-.673	4.924
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=3]	-.177	.702	.063	1	.801	-1.552	1.198
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=4]	-.310	.710	.191	1	.662	-1.701	1.081
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=5]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=3]	-.137	1.505	.008	1	.927	-3.087	2.813
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=4]	.447	1.630	.075	1	.784	-2.747	3.641
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=5]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=1]	.272	.801	.115	1	.735	-1.298	1.841
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=2]	-.670	.724	.858	1	.354	-2.089	.748
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=3]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[access_beach_forest=1]	-.141	.655	.047	1	.829	-1.425	1.142
	[access_beach_forest=2]	-.322	.732	.193	1	.660	-1.757	1.113
	[access_beach_forest=3]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.

Link function: Logit.

a. This parameter was set to zero due to its being redundant.

Note: Statistically significant (p<0.05)

Table 7. Parameter estimation for local safety

		Estimate	Std. Error	Wald	df	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
							Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Threshold	[localsafety_outsider = 3]	.506	2.068	.060	1	.806	-3.546	4.559
	[localsafety_outsider = 4]	1.787	2.078	.740	1	.390	-2.286	5.861
Location	[Location=1]	-2.802	.894	9.823	1	.002	-4.554	-1.050
	[Location=2]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=1]	1.303	1.488	.767	1	.381	-1.613	4.219
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=2]	-19.476	.000	.	1	.	-19.476	-19.476
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=3]	.045	.974	.002	1	.963	-1.864	1.955
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=4]	-.109	.933	.014	1	.907	-1.938	1.720
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=5]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=3]	-1.549	1.755	.779	1	.377	-4.988	1.890
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=4]	-2.134	1.899	1.264	1	.261	-5.856	1.587
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=5]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=1]	2.826	1.356	4.343	1	.037	.168	5.484
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=2]	2.448	1.288	3.614	1	.057	-.076	4.972
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=3]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[access_beach_forest=1]	-.157	.965	.026	1	.871	-2.049	1.736
	[access_beach_forest=2]	-.648	1.094	.351	1	.554	-2.792	1.496
	[access_beach_forest=3]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.

Link function: Logit.

a. This parameter was set to zero due to its being redundant.

Note: Statistically significant (p<0.05)

Table 8. Parameter estimation for pollution

		Estimate	Std. Error	Wald	df	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
							Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Threshold	[pollution = 1]	-21.622	1.175	338.848	1	.000	-23.924	-19.319
	[pollution = 2]	-21.035	1.131	346.007	1	.000	-23.251	-18.818
	[pollution = 3]	-18.876	1.095	297.342	1	.000	-21.021	-16.730
	[pollution = 4]	-17.217	1.105	242.881	1	.000	-19.382	-15.051
Location	[Location=1]	-.488	.546	.799	1	.371	-1.558	.582
	[Location=2]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=1]	2.050	1.098	3.488	1	.062	-.101	4.202
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=2]	-.024	1.274	.000	1	.985	-2.522	2.473
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=3]	.292	.677	.186	1	.666	-1.035	1.618
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=4]	1.077	.690	2.439	1	.118	-.275	2.429
	[participation_landacquisitionprocess=5]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=3]	-18.343	.725	640.510	1	.000	-19.764	-16.923
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=4]	-18.703	.000	.	1	.	-18.703	-18.703
	[compensation_support_after_complaining=5]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=1]	-.820	.799	1.054	1	.305	-2.385	.745
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=2]	-1.513	.734	4.252	1	.039	-2.952	-.075
	[areas_landandhousing_after_landacquisition=3]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.
	[access_beach_forest=1]	.912	.639	2.042	1	.153	-.339	2.164
	[access_beach_forest=2]	.639	.698	.839	1	.360	-.729	2.006
	[access_beach_forest=3]	0^a	.	.	0	.	.	.

a. This parameter was set to zero due to its being redundant.

Note: Statistically significant (p<0.05)