Socioeconomic hardships, religiosity, and radicalization: A non-linear exploration

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of the study region.

Table 1. Threshold regression

	Outcome: Radicalization
	Religiosity
Variables	< −.330	> −.330
Economic Prospects	−0.106	0.136***
	(0.104)	(0.036)
Political Marginalization	0.012	0.027
	(0.095)	(0.030)
Individual Relative Deprivation	0.092	0.165***
	(0.119)	(0.042)
Collective Relative Deprivation	−0.281*	0.057
	(0.115)	(0.038)
Injustice	0.107	0.098***
	(0.084)	(0.038)
Exclusion	0.114	0.021
	(0.095)	(0.028)
Inequality	0.033	0.096*
	(0.129)	(0.047)
Oppression	0.084	−0.084*
	(0.096)	(0.037)
Controls
Gender (0 = Female, 1 = Male)	0.190	0.216***
	(0.140)	(0.043)
Age	0.110	0.017
	(0.070)	(0.024)
Marital Status	−0.284	0.209*
	(0.245)	(0.094)
Family Size	0.204*	0.004
	(0.101)	(0.025
Family Income	−0.104	−0.050***
	(0.069)	(0.018)
Bootstrap (P-value)
R-sq	0.319	0.234
Het (P-value)
No. of Observations	64	446

Note: Standard errors are reported in parenthesis (White Corrected).

***indicates significance at 1%.

**indicates significance at 5%.

*indicates significance at 10%.

Figure 2. Threshold test.

Table

Variable	Statement
Age 1 2 3 4 5	What is your age in years? 18–19 20–21 22–23 24–25 26 and Above
Gender 0 1	What is your gender? Female Male
Marital Status 0 1	What is your marital status? Unmarried Married
Family Size 1 2 3 4 5	How many people live in your house as one family? 1–5 6–10 11–15 16–20 21 and above
Family Income 1 2 3 4 5	In terms of total income, at which level can your family be placed? Rs. 5,000–10,000 Rs. 11000–20,000 Rs. 21000–30,000 Rs. 31000–40,000 Above Rs. 40000

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	Imagine that a Pakistani Imam says that all Pakistani Muslims should support the Afghan Taliban in their fight against the American army in Afghanistan. How much would you agree to the Imam’s demand?
2	Imagine that a Muslim person is killed by an American drone strike in Afghanistan or the tribal areas (FATA) of Pakistan. One of his relatives decides to join the Afghan Taliban to take revenge. How much would you agree that he made the right decision?
3	In 2007, Pakistan conducted a military operation in Laal Masjid (Red Mosque), during which the head Imam, Maulana Abdur Rashid, died. Afterward, Osama Bin Laden described him as a hero of Islam and declared war against the Pakistan army. To what extent do you agree that the declaration of Osama Bin Laden is acceptable?
4	The Quran has ordered that a Muslim should not kill himself. This is what the Quran says (Quran 2:29): “And do not kill yourselves. Indeed, Allah is to you ever merciful.” Have you heard about this?	Yes (11)	No (0)
5	Imagine that a Muslim man has problems with his family. He decides to kill himself. To what extent do you agree that this is acceptable?
6	Imagine that a Muslim man is beaten by the Pakistani police. He decides to wear a suicide jacket and attack the police. To what extent do you agree that this is acceptable?
7	Imagine that a Muslim man is beaten by the Pakistani police. He decides to place a bomb at the police station. To what extent do you agree that this is acceptable?
8	The Hadith forbids a Muslim from killing women and children. This is what the Hadith says (Kitab al-Jihad): “Do not kill women, children, the old or the infirm (weak).” Have you heard about this?	Yes (1)	No (0)
9	Imagine that a Muslim man has a severe problem with his daughter. He decides to kill her. To what extent do you agree this is acceptable?
10	Imagine that after an Imam was killed, a Muslim man attacks a bus filled with men, women, and children. To what extent do you agree that this situation is acceptable?
11	Imagine that after an Iman was killed, a Muslim man attacks a bus filled with adult men. To what extent do you agree that this is acceptable?
12	In 2011, the Governor of Punjab (Salman Taseer) was killed by his police bodyguard, Mumtaz Qadri. The killer claimed that it was his religious duty to kill the Governor because he spoke against the blasphemy law. Do you agree that the claims of Mumtaz Qadri are acceptable?
13	In 2017, Mashal Khan, a student at Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, was blamed for posting blasphemous content against Islam on Facebook. Rather than handing him over to the police, he was killed by a crowd of people inside his university over these allegations. Do you agree that this situation is acceptable?
14	In the blasphemy case against Aasia Bibi, an Imam in Peshawar offered a reward of five lakh rupees to anyone who kills her. To what extent do you agree that this is acceptable?
15	Imagine that a Pakistani Imam says that one’s faith/belief in Islam allows him to use violence against the Ahmadis. How much would you agree with the Imam’s statement?

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	I believe I have little chance of becoming wealthy in Pakistan.
2	My family is not fairly treated in the existing economic situation.
3	My family members have to struggle frequently to find good employment due to our ethnicity/caste (e.g., Pashtun, Punjabi, Sindhi, Baluch, etc.).

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	I plan to vote in the next election.
2	The Pakistani government does not represent my interests.

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	I don´t think I get as many chances as others in Pakistan.
2	It makes me angry when I think of how I am treated compared to others in Pakistan.
3	I think I am less well off than others in Pakistan.
4	I have the feeling that I am being discriminated.
5	If I compare myself with others in Pakistan, I have the feeling that I am being treated unfairly.
6	I think I can buy less than others in Pakistan.

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	I think my ethnic group (e.g., Pashtuns) is less well off than other groups in Pakistan.
2	It makes me angry when I think of how my ethnic group is treated compared to other groups in Pakistan.
3	I believe people from my ethnic group are discriminated.
4	If I compare my ethnic group with other groups in Pakistan, I have the feeling that we are being treated unfairly.
5	I think that people from my ethnic group don’t get as many opportunities as others in Pakistan.
6	I think people from my ethnic group cannot buy more than others in Pakistan.

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	I think I am usually treated fairly.
2	I think that in my life, I am treated the same as everyone else.
3	I think people generally listen to me well.
4	I think that when people make decisions about me, they are always well prepared.
5	I think I am usually treated with respect.
6	If I disagree with something, I get enough opportunity to have my say.
7	I think that when I have complaints about something, my opinion is generally listened to carefully.

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	In general, others spend time with me for relaxing and enjoying.
2	In general, others invite me to their club, organization, or association.
3	In general, others include me in their plans for the holidays/vacations.
4	In general, others make an effort to get my attention.
5	In general, others invite me to go out to eat with them.
6	In general, others invite me to join them for weekend activities, hobbies, or events.

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	I am satisfied with the economic situation of my family.
2	In comparison with the community where I live, the economic situation of my family is worse.
3	In comparison with the community where I live, the access of my family to the government services is better.
4	I am concerned about the inequality that exists around me and my family.
5	There is a serious need for re-distribution of resources within my society.

Table

S. No	Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Undecided	Agree	Strongly Agree
1	My ethnic group (e.g., Pashtuns) is considered inferior.
2	My ethnic group is often looked down upon.
3	Some people treat us unjustly.
4	The dominant ethnic groups want to humiliate us.
5	We are denied our equal rights.
6	We feel humiliated.
7	The dominant ethnic group keeps us from living the way we want.
8	My ethnic group gets controlled too much.
9	The dominant ethnic groups want to physically hurt us.
10	My ethnic group is often verbally abused.

Table

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Cumulative	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min	Max
AGE (YEARS)				2.202	.898	1	5
18–19	117	22.94	22.94
20–21	216	42.35	65.29
22–23	138	27.06	92.35
24–25	35	6.86	99.22
26 and above	4	0.78	100.00
GENDER				1.522	.5	1	2
Male	244	47.48	47.48
Female	266	52.16	100.00
MARITAL STATUS				.053	.224	0	1
Unmarried	483	94.71	94.71
Married	27	5.29	100.00
FAMILY SIZE				1.992	.848	1	5
1–5	126	24.71	24.71
6–10	308	60.39	85.10
11–15	43	8.43	93.53
16–20	20	3.92	97.45
21 and above	13	2.55	100.00
FAMILY INCOME (MONTHLY)				3.924	1.214	1	5
Rs. 0–10,000	20	3.92	3.92
Rs. 11000–20,000	55	10.78	14.71
Rs. 21000–30,000	111	21.76	36.47
Rs. 31000–40,000	82	16.08	52.55
Above Rs. 40000	242	47.45	100.00
RADICALIZATION				0	.496	−1.027	2.234
Support Taliban
Strongly Disagree	61	11.96	11.96
Disagree	99	19.41	31.37
Undecided	152	29.80	61.18
Agree	123	24.12	85.29
Strongly Agree	75	14.71	100.00
Join Taliban
Strongly Disagree	65	12.75	12.75
Disagree	151	29.61	42.35
Undecided	123	24.12	66.47
Agree	112	21.96	88.43
Strongly Agree	59	11.57	100.00
Support Bin Laden’s Declaration
Strongly Disagree	76	14.90	14.90
Disagree	123	24.12	39.02
Undecided	193	37.84	76.86
Agree	83	16.27	93.14
Strongly Agree	35	6.86	100.00
Quranic verse
No	40	7.84	7.84
Yes	470	92.16	100.00
Kill Self
Strongly Disagree	364	71.37	71.37
Disagree	115	22.55	93.92
Undecided	16	3.14	97.06
Agree	11	2.16	99.22
Strongly Agree	4	0.78	100.00
Attack Police
Strongly Disagree	283	55.49	55.49
Disagree	157	30.78	86.27
Undecided	51	10.00	96.27
Agree	11	2.16	98.43
Strongly Agree	8	1.57	100.00
Bomb Police Station
Strongly Disagree	313	61.37	61.37
Disagree	150	29.41	90.78
Undecided	32	6.27	97.06
Agree	8	1.57	98.63
Strongly Agree	7	1.37	100.00
Hadith
No	56	10.98	10.98
Yes	454	89.02	100.00
Kill Daughter
Strongly Disagree	350	68.63	68.63
Disagree	109	21.37	90.00
Undecided	37	7.25	97.25
Agree	6	1.18	98.43
Strongly Agree	8	1.57	100.00
Attack Men, Women & Children
Strongly Disagree	332	65.10	65.10
Disagree	123	24.12	89.22
Undecided	48	9.41	98.63
Agree	4	0.78	99.41
Strongly Agree	3	0.59	100.00
Attack Adult Men
Strongly Disagree	286	56.08	56.08
Disagree	159	31.18	87.25
Undecided	52	10.20	97.45
Agree	5	0.98	98.43
Strongly Agree	8	1.57	100.00
Kill Governor
Strongly Disagree	50	9.80	9.80
Disagree	88	17.25	27.06
Undecided	153	30.00	57.06
Agree	109	21.37	78.43
Strongly Agree	110	21.57	100.00
Kill Mashal
Strongly Disagree	177	34.71	34.71
Disagree	135	26.47	61.18
Undecided	106	20.78	81.96
Agree	59	11.57	93.53
Strongly Agree	33	6.47	100.00
Kill Asia Bibi
Strongly Disagree	92	18.04	18.04
Disagree	101	19.80	37.84
Undecided	166	32.55	70.39
Agree	84	16.47	86.86
Strongly Agree	67	13.14	100.00
Violence Against Ahmadis
Strongly Disagree	66	12.94	12.94
Disagree	89	17.45	30.39
Undecided	153	30.00	60.39
Agree	118	23.14	83.53
Strongly Agree	84	16.47	100.00
POOR ECONOMIC PROSPECTS				0	.703	−1.768	1.634
Economic Prospects
Strongly Disagree	42	8.24	8.24
Disagree	98	19.22	27.45
Undecided	63	12.35	39.80
Agree	211	41.37	81.18
Strongly Agree	96	18.82	100.00
Unfair Treatment
Strongly Disagree	43	8.43	8.43
Disagree	156	30.59	39.02
Undecided	116	22.75	61.76
Agree	166	32.55	94.31
Strongly Agree	29	5.69	100.00
Struggle
Strongly Disagree	72	14.12	14.12
Disagree	160	31.37	45.49
Undecided	93	18.24	63.73
Agree	141	27.65	91.37
Strongly Agree	44	8.63	100.00
POLITICAL MARGINALIZATION				0	.743	−1.535	1.769
Vote
Strongly Disagree	53	10.39	10.39
Disagree	53	10.39	20.78
Undecided	67	13.14	33.92
Agree	163	31.96	65.88
Strongly Agree	174	34.12	100.00
Representation
Strongly Disagree	29	5.69	5.69
Disagree	96	18.82	24.51
Undecided	146	28.63	53.14
Agree	158	30.98	84.12
Strongly Agree	81	15.88	100.00
INDIVIDUAL RELATIVE DEPRIVATION
Chances
Strongly Disagree	37	7.25	7.25
Disagree	153	30.00	37.25
Undecided	117	22.94	60.20
Agree	148	29.02	89.22
Strongly Agree	55	10.78	100.00
Treatment
Strongly Disagree	44	8.63	8.63
Disagree	169	33.14	41.76
Undecided	93	18.24	60.00
Agree	143	28.04	88.04
Strongly Agree	61	11.96	100.00
Less Well Off
Strongly Disagree	54	10.59	10.59
Disagree	175	34.31	44.90
Undecided	131	25.69	70.59
Agree	121	23.73	94.31
Strongly Agree	29	5.69	100.00
Discrimination
Strongly Disagree	59	11.57	11.57
Disagree	194	38.04	49.61
Undecided	117	22.94	72.55
Agree	111	21.76	94.31
Strongly Agree	29	5.69	100.00
Comparison
Strongly Disagree	67	13.14	13.14
Disagree	211	41.37	54.51
Undecided	90	17.65	72.16
Agree	107	20.98	93.14
Strongly Agree	35	6.86	100.00
Buying
Strongly Disagree	46	9.02	9.02
Disagree	191	37.45	46.47
Undecided	108	21.18	67.65
Agree	127	24.90	92.55
Strongly Agree	38	7.45	100.00
COLLECTIVE RELATIVE DEPRIVATION
Group Less Well Off
Strongly Disagree	87	17.06	17.06
Disagree	170	33.33	50.39
Undecided	118	23.14	73.53
Agree	95	18.63	92.16
Strongly Agree	40	7.84	100.00
Group’s Treatment
Strongly Disagree	39	7.65	7.65
Disagree	119	23.33	30.98
Undecided	139	27.25	58.24
Agree	152	29.80	88.04
Strongly Agree	61	11.96	100.00
Group Discrimination
Strongly Disagree	43	8.43	8.43
Disagree	135	26.47	34.90
Undecided	131	25.69	60.59
Agree	151	29.61	90.20
Strongly Agree	50	9.80	100.00
Group Unfairly Treated
Strongly Disagree	51	10.00	10.00
Disagree	156	30.59	40.59
Undecided	114	22.35	62.94
Agree	131	25.69	88.63
Strongly Agree	58	11.37	100.00
Group Opportunities
Strongly Disagree	57	11.18	11.18
Disagree	162	31.76	42.94
Undecided	103	20.20	63.14
Agree	134	26.27	89.41
Strongly Agree	54	10.59	100.00
Buying
Strongly Disagree	69	13.53	13.53
Disagree	175	34.31	47.84
Undecided	130	25.49	73.33
Agree	107	20.98	94.31
Strongly Agree	29	5.69	100.00
INJUSTICE
Fair Treatment
Strongly Disagree	11	2.16	2.16
Disagree	60	11.76	13.92
Undecided	76	14.90	28.82
Agree	283	55.49	84.31
Strongly Agree	80	15.69	100.00
Equal Treatment
Strongly Disagree	13	2.55	2.55
Disagree	81	15.88	18.43
Undecided	82	16.08	34.51
Agree	261	51.18	85.69
Strongly Agree	73	14.31	100.00
Listening
Strongly Disagree	14	2.75	2.75
Disagree	57	11.18	13.92
Undecided	54	10.59	24.51
Agree	292	57.25	81.76
Strongly Agree	93	18.24	100.00
Decision
Strongly Disagree	12	2.35	2.35
Disagree	80	15.69	18.04
Undecided	138	27.06	45.10
Agree	227	44.51	89.61
Strongly Agree	53	10.39	100.00
Respect
Strongly Disagree	6	1.18	1.18
Disagree	34	6.67	7.84
Undecided	60	11.76	19.61
Agree	306	60.00	79.61
Strongly Agree	104	20.39	100.00
Disagreeing
Strongly Disagree	11	2.16	2.16
Disagree	70	13.73	15.88
Undecided	114	22.35	38.24
Agree	255	50.00	88.24
Strongly Agree	60	11.76	100.00
Complaints
Strongly Disagree	21	4.12	4.12
Disagree	59	11.57	15.69
Undecided	106	20.78	36.47
Agree	269	52.75	89.22
Strongly Agree	55	10.78	100.00
EXCLUSION
Time Spending
Strongly Disagree	16	3.14	3.14
Disagree	55	10.78	13.92
Undecided	93	18.24	32.16
Agree	238	46.67	78.82
Strongly Agree	108	21.18	100.00
Invitation
Strongly Disagree	34	6.67	6.67
Disagree	114	22.35	29.02
Undecided	111	21.76	50.78
Agree	198	38.82	89.61
Strongly Agree	53	10.39	100.00
Holiday Plans
Strongly Disagree	36	7.06	7.06
Disagree	78	15.29	22.35
Undecided	93	18.24	40.59
Agree	231	45.29	85.88
Strongly Agree	72	14.12	100.00
Attention
Strongly Disagree	27	5.29	5.29
Disagree	90	17.65	22.94
Undecided	109	21.37	44.31
Agree	219	42.94	87.25
Strongly Agree	65	12.75	100.00
Eating Invitation
Strongly Disagree	24	4.71	4.71
Disagree	70	13.73	18.43
Undecided	67	13.14	31.57
Agree	270	52.94	84.51
Strongly Agree	79	15.49	100.00
Weekend Invitations
Strongly Disagree	26	5.10	5.10
Disagree	87	17.06	22.16
Undecided	88	17.25	39.41
Agree	238	46.67	86.08
Strongly Agree	71	13.92	100.00
INEQUALITY
Satisfaction
Strongly Disagree	39	7.65	7.65
Disagree	93	18.24	25.88
Undecided	72	14.12	40.00
Agree	221	43.33	83.33
Strongly Agree	85	16.67	100.00
Worse Economic Situation
Strongly Disagree	58	11.37	11.37
Disagree	182	35.69	47.06
Undecided	129	25.29	72.35
Agree	107	20.98	93.33
Strongly Agree	34	6.67	100.00
Government Services
Strongly Disagree	33	6.47	6.47
Disagree	111	21.76	28.24
Undecided	130	25.49	53.73
Agree	198	38.82	92.55
Strongly Agree	38	7.45	100.00
Inequality Concern
Strongly Disagree	28	5.49	5.49
Disagree	133	26.08	31.57
Undecided	168	32.94	64.51
Agree	147	28.82	93.33
Strongly Agree	34	6.67	100.00
Redistribution
Strongly Disagree	18	3.53	3.53
Disagree	47	9.22	12.75
Undecided	93	18.24	30.98
Agree	215	42.16	73.14
Strongly Agree	137	26.86	100.00
OPPRESSION
Inferior
Strongly Disagree	44	8.63	8.63
Disagree	156	30.59	39.22
Undecided	140	27.45	66.67
Agree	128	25.10	91.76
Strongly Agree	42	8.24	100.00
Looked Down Upon
Strongly Disagree	41	8.04	8.04
Disagree	147	28.82	36.86
Undecided	156	30.59	67.45
Agree	126	24.71	92.16
Strongly Agree	40	7.84	100.00
Unjust Treatment
Strongly Disagree	44	8.63	8.63
Disagree	153	30.00	38.63
Undecided	99	19.41	58.04
Agree	172	33.73	91.76
Strongly Agree	42	8.24	100.00
Humiliated by Dominant Groups
Strongly Disagree	47	9.22	9.22
Disagree	193	37.84	47.06
Undecided	122	23.92	70.98
Agree	115	22.55	93.53
Strongly Agree	33	6.47	100.00
Rights
Strongly Disagree	38	7.45	7.45
Disagree	154	30.20	37.65
Undecided	96	18.82	56.47
Agree	150	29.41	85.88
Strongly Agree	72	14.12	100.00
Felt Humiliated
Strongly Disagree	51	10.00	10.00
Disagree	212	41.57	51.57
Undecided	106	20.78	72.35
Agree	105	20.59	92.94
Strongly Agree	36	7.06	100.00
Living
Strongly Disagree	44	8.63	8.63
Disagree	165	32.35	40.98
Undecided	130	25.49	66.47
Agree	131	25.69	92.16
Strongly Agree	40	7.84	100.00
Control
Strongly Disagree	43	8.43	8.43
Disagree	157	30.78	39.22
Undecided	121	23.73	62.94
Agree	147	28.82	91.76
Strongly Agree	42	8.24	100.00
Hurt
Strongly Disagree	63	12.35	12.35
Disagree	221	43.33	55.69
Undecided	107	20.98	76.67
Agree	86	16.86	93.53
Strongly Agree	33	6.47	100.00
Abuse
Strongly Disagree	55	10.78	10.78
Disagree	180	35.29	46.08
Undecided	119	23.33	69.41
Agree	120	23.53	92.94
Strongly Agree	36	7.06	100.00
PRAYER FREQUENCY
Prayer Frequency
Daily	395	77.45	77.45
Weekly	37	7.25	84.71
Monthly	12	2.35	87.06
Sometimes	21	4.12	91.18
Rarely	45	8.82	100.00
Identity
Male	17	3.33	3.33
Female	9	1.76	5.10
Muslim	404	79.22	84.31
Caste/Tribe	13	2.55	86.86
Pakistani	67	13.14	100.00

Table

Variables	(1)
(1) Religiosity	1.000
(2) Radicalization	−0.010
	(0.820)
(3) Economic Prospects	0.073
	(0.097)
(4) Political Marginalization	0.063
	(0.153)
(5) Individual Relative Deprivation	0.101*
	(0.023)
(6) Collective Relative Deprivation	0.040
	(0.366)
(7) Injustice	−0.126*
	(0.004)
(8) Exclusion	−0.063
	(0.156)
(9) Inequality	0.002
	(0.966)
(10) Oppression	0.022
	(0.615)
(11) Age	−0.040
	(0.368)
(12) Gender	−0.023
	(0.598)
(13) Marital Status	−0.093*
	(0.035)
(14) Family Size	−0.047
	(0.292)
(15) Family Income	0.023
	(0.609)

Table

Outcome: Radicalization
Variables	Linear
Economic Prospects	0.103***
	(0.035)
Political Marginalization	0.031
	(0.030)
Individual Relative Deprivation	0.149***
	(0.041)
Collective Relative Deprivation	−0.005
	(0.041)
Injustice	0.110***
	(0.036)
Exclusion	0.001
	(0.028)
Inequality	0.102**
	(0.044)
Oppression	−0.024
	(0.040)
Controls
Gender (0 = Female, 1 = Male)	0.211***
	(0.041)
Age	0.016
	(0.023)
Marital Status	0.149*
	(0.089)
Family Size	0.035
	(0.030)
Family Income	−0.057
	(0.017)
Bootstrap (P-value)	0.017
R-sq	0.183
Het (P-value)	0.009
No. of Observations	510

***indicates significance at 1%.

**indicates significance at 5%.

*indicates significance at 10%.

Table

	Outcome: Radicalization
	Religiosity
Variables	Linear	< −.330	> −.330
Economic Prospects	0.104***	−0.113	0.139***
	(0.035)	(0.108)	(0.035)
Political Marginalization	0.031	0.011	0.026
	(0.030)	(0.096)	(0.030)
Individual Relative Deprivation	0.150***	0.111	0.169***
	(0.041)	(0.133)	(0.041)
Collective Relative Deprivation	−0.005	−0.296**	0.061
	(0.042)	(0.123)	(0.038)
Injustice	0.110***	0.108	0.087**
	(0.037)	(0.084)	(0.039)
Exclusion	0.001	0.100	0.023
	(0.028)	(0.108)	(0.028)
Inequality	0.103	0.033	0.099**
	(0.044)	(0.129)	(0.046)
Oppression	−0.024	0.076	−0.089**
	(0.040)	(0.100)	(0.037)
Religiosity	−0.006	0.106	−0.074**
	(0.031)	(0.270)	(0.037)
Controls
Gender (0 = Female, 1 = Male)	0.211***	0.194	0.218**
	(0.041)	(0.143)	(0.043)
Age	0.016	0.105	0.014
	(0.023)	(0.070)	(0.024)
Marital Status	0.147	−0.271	0.191**
	(0.090)	(0.244)	(0.095)
Family Size	0.035	0.203**	0.001
	(0.030)	(0.101)	(0.025)
Family Income	−0.057***	−0.108*	−0.045**
	(0.017)	(0.066)	(0.018)
Bootstrap (P-value)	0.000
R-sq	0.183	0.321	0.241
Het (P-value)	0.011
No. of Observations	510	64	446

Note: Standard errors are reported in parenthesis (White Corrected).

***indicates significance at 1%.

**indicates significance at 5%.

*indicates significance at 10%.

Table

Radicalization	Coef.	Inflection Point
Economic Prospects	.097**
	(.039)	1.383
Economic Prospects^2	−.035
	(.041)
Political Marginalization	.037
	(.03)
Individual Relative Deprivation	.137***
	(.039)	2.333
Individual Relative Deprivation^2	−.029
	(.034)
Collective Relative Deprivation	−.002
	(.04)	−.094
Collective Relative Deprivation^2	−.01
	(.035)
Injustice	.136***
	(.037)	−1.164
Injustice^2	.058**
	(025)
Exclusion	.004
	(.028)
Inequality	.108**
	(.043)	−.883
Inequality^2	.061
	(.048)
Oppression	−.015
	(.037)	−.051
Oppression^2	−.15***
	(.03)
Controls
Gender (0 = Female, 1 = Male)	.229***
	(.041)
Age	.025
	(.023)
Marital Status (0 = Unmarried, 1 = Married)	.179**
	(.089)
Family Size	−.099
	(.105)	424.060
Family Size^2	.03
	(.022)
Family Income	−.049
	(.113)	1.621
Family Income^2	0
	(.016)

Note: Standard errors are reported in parenthesis (Robust).

***indicates significance at 1%.

**indicates significance at 5%.

*indicates significance at 10%.