Determinants of child schooling in Kwara State, North Central Nigeria

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of Kwara State indicating its location in pink colour on the map of Nigeria.

Source: Adapted from Kwara State Government Portal https://kwarastate.gov.ng/#.

Table 1. Out-of-school children in Nigeria (primary).

Year	Male	% Male	Female	% Female	Total	% Total
2004	2,951,925	27.31	3,864,750	37.01	6,816,675	32.08
2005	3,005,721	27.08	3,896,022	36.35	6,901,743	31.63
2006	3,101,169	27.22	3,878,533	35.26	6,979,702	31.17
2007	2,457,076	20.94	4,075,093	35.99	6,532,169	28.33
2008	3,473,187	28.69	4,874,836	41.76	8,348,023	35.11
2009	3,477,155	27.82	4,871,064	40.44	8,348,219	34.01
2010	3,646,385	28.26	4,969,385	39.99	8,615,770	34.02

Source: World Bank Development Index 2019.

Table 2. Enrolment Statistics in percentage for Nigeria and Kwara State.

	2013 (%) Nigeria	2011(%) Nigeria	2011 (%) Kwara State
Never been to school	28	21	17
Over-age primary school children	19	18	16
Out-of-school children	31	30	17
PSCR	69	78	81
OOS Adolescence	28	22	16
Higher education attendance	8	12	25
Lower secondary school completion		59	65
Upper secondary		50	59

Source: UNESCO education report 2014.

Figure 2. Out-of-school children (primary) in Nigeria.

Source: Author’s compilation from Table 1.

Table 3. Out of school children in North Central Geopolitical Region of Nigeria.

States	Population of OOSC	Percentage %
Benue	152,464	19
Kogi	57,897	8.6
Kwara	98,410	23.1
Nasarawa	78,884	22.7
Niger	382,810	50.8
Plateau	84,507	14.5

Source: Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (2008).

Figure 3. Theory representation in diagram.

Source: Author’s compilation.

Table 4. Population and household sample size (Kwara State).

Location	Location divisions	Population	Household	Sample size	Sample size (total)
Ilorin	Ilorin East Ilorin West Ilorin South	280,000 282,500 493,000	56,000 56,500 98,600	106 107 186	399
Lafiagi		292,200	54,440	397	397
Offa		120,100	24,000	393	393
Total					1189

Source: Author’s computation.

Table 5. Description of variables for child schooling enrolment and child schooling attainment.

Variable	Definition	Measurement	Description
CSE	Child schooling enrolment	This is a polytomous response with three outcomes. 1 if never enrolled, 2 if was enrolled, and 3 is enrolled	This is the enrolment of school-aged children (3–17 years)
AGE	Age of the school-aged children	This measured in years	This is a continuous variable from age 3–17 years
PEA	Parental Education Attainment	1 for a minimum of secondary school education and 0 if otherwise	This is the highest level of education for the parents of school-aged children
PEMP	Parental employment status	This is a polytomous response, it is 1 if one parent is employed, 2 if both are employed and 3 if both unemployed	This is the employment status of the parents of the school-aged children
EDUCOST	Cost of Education	This is a continuous variable	The is the monetary cost of enrolling a child in school
ACCESS	Access to school	1 if easily accessible and 0 if otherwise	This shows the kilometres a child must cover to get to a school. This is to ascertain the level of difficulty in attending a school for school-aged children in the household.
RURAL	Rural Area	Dummy with 1 if urban and 0 for a rural location	This shows the level of development of the location of the household.

Table 6. Descriptive statistics of the relevant variables.

Variables	Mean	Min	Max
Age (in years) Head of household	60.97	32	93
Age (Children)	11.9	3	17
Length of stay (in years) in the environment	37.42	1	80
Monthly average household income (in naira)	N120,704.7	N5,000	N900,000
Distance from economic activities (in km) -	1.47	0.7	13
Distance from school (in km)	4.97	0.7	120
Household size	5.22	2	9
Annual cost of education per child	N53,912.64	N1,000	N870,000

Table

Categorical Variables		Percentage
		Older Parents	Children	Youth and middle-aged parents
Gender	Male		72.85
	Female		27.15
Tribe	Yoruba		24.54
	Others		75.46
Education status	Never enrolled		11.26
	Was enrolled		46.15
	Enrolled		42.60
Highest education attained (Parent)	None	23.17		19.75
	Primary education	10.75		11.44
	Secondary education	20.82		23.26
	Diploma	18.77		21.41
	Degree	21.99		21.02
	Postgraduate	4.50		3.13
Current Employment	Employed	65.00		53.08
	Unemployed	35.00		46.92
Location	Urban	64.71	30.68
	Rural	35.29	69.32
	No	0.59
Access to secondary education	Yes		70.23
	No		29.77

Source: Author’s computation (older parents are parents above 65 years and youth and middle-aged parents are parents of 64 years and below).

Table 7. Child schooling enrolment distribution.

Category	Frequency (percentage)	Cumulative
Children without education	222 (11.26)	11.26
Children that dropped out	910 (46.15)	57.40
Children in school	840 (42.60)	100
Total	1,972 (100)

Source: Author’s computation.

Table 8. Multinomial logistic regression coefficient, relative risk ratio, marginal effect and robust results of the determinants of child schooling/out-of-school children in Kwara State, Nigeria (Reference Category: Never Enrolled).

Variables	Coefficient	Relative risk ratio	Marginal effect dx/dy	Robust results
Category 1: Was enrolled
Age	0.049283 (0.007) *	1.050518 (0.007) *	−0.0139898 (0.000) *	0.0492833 (0.007) *
Parental Education Attainment	0.0666444 (0.220)	1.068915 (0.220)	0.0281451 (0.001) *	0.0666444 (0.205)
Parental employment status	−0.104884 (0.106)	0.9004283 (0.106)	0.0062169 (0.546)	−0.1048847 (0.096) ***
Access to school	0.2677735 (0.141)	1.307051 (0.141)	−0.0116443 (0.659)	0.2677735 (0.139)
Rural	−0.2047966 (0.245)	0.814813 (0.245)	0.0741201 (0.003) *	−0.2047966 (0.244)
Log of educational cost	−0.1387228 (0.020) **	0.8704693 (0.020) **	−0.0062295 (0.481)	−0.1387228 (0.016) **
C	2.488381 (0.000) *	12.04176 (0.000) *		2.488381 (0.000) *
Category 2: Enrolled
Age of children	0.1320731 (0.000) *	1.141192 (0.000) *	0.0224388 (0.000) *	0.1320731 (0.000) *
Parental Education Attainment	−0.0580487 (0.304)	0.943604 (0.304)	−0.027424 (0.001) *	−0.0580487 (0.287)
Parental employment status	−0.1626301 (0.015) **	0.8499055 (0.015) **	−0.0188402 (0.069) ***	−0.1626301 (0.013) **
Access to school	0.3939413 (0.032) **	1.482814 (0.032) **	0.0429104 (0.101)	0.3939413 (0.032) **
Rural	−0.6292083 (0.000) *	0.5330136 (0.000) *	−0.1128653 (0.000) *	−0.6292083 (0.000) *
Log of educational cost	−0.1424284 (0.020) **	0.8672496 (0.020) **	−0.0071793 (0.418)	−0.1424284 (0.016) **
C	2.016862 (0.002) *	7.514706 (0.002) *		2.016862 (0.002) *
Observations	1,972

Source: Author’s computation.

***, **, and * denote significance at 10, 5 and 1%, respectively. Probability values in parenthesis. Note. Robust result is suitable when there is a possible problem of outlier and violation of the distribution assumptions. So, we present this result to validate the multinomial logistic regression coefficients and show that the analysis’s outcome is free from heteroscedasticity.

Table

Variables	Chi-square		Degree of freedom
	Likelihood-ratio	Wald
Age of children	63.925 (0.000)*	60.944 (0.000)*	2
Parental education attainment	12.008 (0.002)*	11.901 (0.003)*	2
Parental employment status	6.012 (0.049)**	6.065 (0.048)**	2
Access to secondary school	4.908 (0.086)***	4.805 (0.091)*	2
Rural	22.450 (0.000)*	22.238 (0.000)*	2
Log of educational cost	6.155 (0.046)**	5.981 (0.050)**	2

***, **, and * denote significant at 10, 5 and 1%, respectively. Probability values in parenthesis. Note. We conducted LR and Wald tests for the independent variables and then removed all the variables that were not significant to obtain the final model.

Table

Alternatives tested	Chi-square		Degree of freedom
	Likelihood-ratio	Wald
2- 3	76.984 (0.000)*	72.828 (0.000)*	7
2- 1	17.810 (0.007)*	17.659 (0.007)*	7
3- 1	76.055 (0.000)*	73.261 (0.000)*	7

* Denote significance at 1 percent and probability values in parenthesis.

Table

Omitted categories	Chi-square		Degree of freedom	Evidence
	Hausman tests	Small-Hsiao tests
2	4.767 (0.688)	2.974 (0.887)	7	for Ho
3	4.651 (0.702)	2.885 (0.895)	7	for Ho

The probability values of both Hausman and Small-Hsiao tests are not significant at 10% level.

Table

Variables	VIF	1/VIF
Child schooling enrolment	1.06	0.9474
Age of children	1.04	0.9578
Parental education attainment	1.09	0.9133
Parental employment status	1.01	0.9919
Access to school	1.12	0.8908
Rural	1.01	0.9871
Log of educational cost	1.05	0.9522
Average of VIF	1.06

Source: Author’s computation.

Table

Statistics	Values	Statistics	Values
Log-Lik Intercept Only	−1905.490	Log-Lik Full Model	−1846.393
D(1958)	3692.785	LR (12)	118.195
		Prob > LR	0.000
McFadden’s R2	0.031	McFadden’s Adj R^2	0.024
ML (Cox-Snell) R2	0.058	Cragg-Uhler (Nagelkerke) R2	0.068
Count R2	0.511	Adj Count R^2	0.091
AIC	1.887	AIC*n	3720.785
BIC	−11162.176	BIC’	−27.153
BIC used by Stata	3799.001	AIC used by Stata	3720.785

Source: Author’s computation.

Table

1	2	3	4	5	6	7
	Sex	Age	Relationship to head of household	Individual marital status	Individual religion	Individual tribe
	Male 1		Head 1	Married (monogamy) 1	Muslim 1	Yoruba 1
	Female 2		Spouse 2	Married (Polygamy) 2	Christian 2	Fulani/Hausa 2
			Child 3	Divorced 3	Traditional 3	Nupe 3
			Grandchild 4	Separated 4	Others (Specify) 4	Others 4
			Siblings 5	Widow(er) 5
			Nephew/Niece 6	Never married 6
			In-law 7
			Parent 8
			Parent In-law 9
			Cousins 10
			Other extended relative 11
People in household			Servant 12
(Identification)			Squatter 13
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table

	8	9	10	11	12	13
	Individual current education status	Highest education attained	Vocational training	Religious education	Occupation/wages	Average household income (monthly)
	Never attended school 1	None 1	Yes 1	Yes 1	Fully employed in paid work with government 1
	Attended but discontinued 2	Primary education 2	No 2	No 2	Fully employed in paid work with private organisation 2
	Attending Primary School 3	Secondary education 3			Self-employed (Skilled) 3
	Attending Secondary education 4	Diploma 4			Self-employed (unskilled) 4
	Attending Tertiary education 5	Degree 5			Unemployed 5
People in household		Postgraduate 6
(Identification)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table

1	2		3	4	5	6	7	8
	Interest in education decision		What is the educational performance	What is the highest level of the child’s parents/guardian/Head of household education?	Individual child’s parental/Head of household employment?	What is the average annual cost of education per child	Is there incentive for schooling?	Is there access to government universal basic education scheme?
	Does the (Individual) child show interest in acquiring education and going to school?	Are you willing and capable to sponsor your child/children to any level of interest?	How will you rate your child’s performance?	None 1	Fully employed in paid work with government 1		Yes 1	Yes 1
	Yes 1	Yes 1	Excellent 1	Primary education 2	Fully employed in paid work with private organisation 2		No 2	No 2
	No 2	No 2	Very good 2	Secondary education 3	Self-employed (Skilled) 3
			Good 3	Diploma 4	Self-employed (unskilled) 4
			Fair 4	Degree 5	Unemployed 5
People in household			Poor 5	Postgraduate 6
(Identification)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table

	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16
	What is the birth order of the child?	Residential distance from the closest school	Is there access to secondary education in the area	Is there access to tertiary education?	Who are your child’s friends? Are they enrolled?	Who are the parent’s associates? Are their wards in school?	What is the marital status of child’s parents?	Gender of child
			Yes 1	Yes 1	Yes 1	Yes 1	Married (monogamy) 1	Male 1
			No 2	No 2	No 2	No 2	Married (Polygamy) 2	Female 2
							Divorced 3
							Separated 4
							Widow(er) 5
People in household							Never married 6
(Identification)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Data availability

Dataset for Child schooling/Out of school children in Kwara State, Nigeria. (Original Coded Data) (Mendeley Data) https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/82zygyrsk3/4.