Changes in gender differences in household poverty in Kenya

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary of variables

Variables	Definitions
Dependent Variables
Household Poverty	In the binomial model, =1 if a household is poor and 0 otherwise while in the ordered model =1 if a household is non-poor, =2 if a household is poor and =3 if a household is hard-core poor
Explanatory Variables
Gender of the Household Head	=1 if a household is headed by a female, 0 otherwise
Age of Household Head	Years completed since birth
Household Size	Number of individuals in the household
Literacy	=1 if literate and 0 otherwise
Highest Level of Education Attained	=1 if in Primary and post-primary with/without certificate and 0 Otherwise; =1 if in Secondary and post-secondary and 0 otherwise; =1 if in university and 0 otherwise; and =1 for no education and 0 otherwise
Employment Status	=1 if in public and formal sector employment and 0 otherwise; =1 if working in agricultural sector and 0 otherwise; =1 if in informal and business sector employment and 0 otherwise; and =1 if unemployed and 0 otherwise.
Marital Status	=1 if monogamous married and 0 otherwise; =1 if polygamous married and 0 otherwise; = 1 if living together and never married and 0 otherwise; = 1 if separated or divorced and 0 otherwise; and =1 if widow or widower and 0 otherwise
Area of Residence	=1 if rural residence and 0 otherwise; and = county of residence
Cash Transfers	=1 if received cash transfers and 0 otherwise
Dependency Ratios	=Number of elderlies aged 65 years and above plus children aged below 18 years

Source: Author’s thoughts from reviewed literature

Table 2. Descriptive statistics by gender of household head, 2005/06

Variable	Female-headed households’ sample					Male headed households’ sample
	Obs	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min	Max	Obs	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min	Max
Household Size	1,099	4.558	2.628	1	24	2,579	5.184	2.860	1	23
Age of household head	1,099	46.328	16.903	6	98	2,579	43.087	14.754	15	99
Household head’s age squared	1,099	2431.68	1773.80	36	9604	2,579	2074.08	1482.11	225	9801
Residence	1,099	0.641	0.480	0	1	2,579	0.579	0.494	0	1
Received cash transfers	1,099	0.540	0.499	0	1	2,579	0.670	0.470	0	1
Dependency ratio	1,099	1.607	1.676	0	10	2,579	1.344	1.423	0	13
Secondary Education	1,099	0.230	0.421	0	1	2,579	0.346	0.476	0	1
University Education	1,099	0.015	0.123	0	1	2,579	0.037	0.189	0	1
Primary Education	1,099	0.362	0.481	0	1	2,579	0.449	0.497	0	1
No Education	1,099	0.389	0.488	0	1	2,579	0.159	0.365	0	1
Literacy	1,099	0.558	0.497	0	1	2,579	0.815	0.389	0	1
Employment in Public/Private sector	1,099	0.186	0.389	0	1	2,579	0.269	0.443	0	1
Business Employment	1,099	0.153	0.360	0	1	2,579	0.273	0.446	0	1
Agriculture Employment	1,099	0.326	0.469	0	1	2,579	0.304	0.460	0	1
Unemployed	1,099	0.336	0.472	0	1	2,579	0.155	0.362	0	1
Monogamous	1,099	0.250	0.433	0	1	2,579	0.767	0.423	0	1
Polygamous	1,099	0.090	0.286	0	1	2,579	0.113	0.317	0	1
Never Married	1,099	0.125	0.330	0	1	2,579	0.072	0.258	0	1
Separated/Divorced	1,099	0.115	0.319	0	1	2,579	0.020	0.141	0	1
Windowed	1,099	0.417	0.493	0	1	2,579	0.022	0.148	0	1

Source: Author’s Computation from 2005/06 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data

Table 3. Descriptive statistics by gender of household head, 2015/16

Variable	Female-headed households’ sample						Male headed households’ sample
	Obs	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min	Max	Obs	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min	Max
Household Size	7,396	3.849	2.319	1	20	14,377	4.478	2.602	1	28
Age of household head	7,385	47.063	17.437	12	100	14,362	43.437	15.232	13	99
Household head’s age squared	7,385	2,518.9	1,826.4	144	10,000	14,362	2,118.8	1,527.611	169	9,801
Residence	7,396	0.636	0.481	0	1	14,377	0.584	0.493	0	1
Received cash transfers	7,396	0.523	0.500	0	1	14,377	0.278	0.448	0	1
Dependency ratio	7,396	1.902	1.927	0	14	14,377	1.650	1.772	0	20
Secondary Education	7,396	0.232	0.422	0	1	14,377	0.345	0.475	0	1
University Education	7,396	0.021	0.145	0	1	14,377	0.044	0.206	0	1
Primary Education	7,396	0.420	0.494	0	1	14,377	0.468	0.499	0	1
No Education	7,396	0.320	0.466	0	1	14,377	0.137	0.344	0	1
Literacy	7,389	0.611	0.487	0	1	14,363	0.827	0.378	0	1
Employment in Public/Private sector	7,396	0.201	0.401	0	1	14,377	0.316	0.465	0	1
Business Employment	7,396	0.247	0.432	0	1	14,377	0.324	0.468	0	1
Agricultural Employment	7,396	0.379	0.485	0	1	14,377	0.282	0.450	0	1
Unemployed	7,396	0.189	0.391	0	1	14,377	0.081	0.273	0	1
Monogamous	7,396	0.289	0.453	0	1	14,377	0.767	0.422	0	1
Polygamous	7,396	0.109	0.312	0	1	14,377	0.091	0.288	0	1
Never Married	7,396	0.113	0.317	0	1	14,377	0.077	0.267	0	1
Separated/Divorced	7,396	0.127	0.332	0	1	14,377	0.040	0.197	0	1
Windowed	7,396	0.362	0.481	0	1	14,377	0.024	0.153	0	1

Source: Author’s Computation from 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data

Table 4. Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) poverty indices, 2005/06 and 2015/16

Householdheadship	2005/06			2015/16
	P0	P1	P2	P0	P1	P2
Subgroup FGT index estimates, P(a)
Female-headed household	.386 (.017)	.138 (.004)	.072 (.0048)	0.302 (.0084)	0.090 (.0020)	0.041 (.0010)
Male-headed household	.327 (0.010)	.110 (.007)	.051 (.0026)	0.260 (.0063)	0.070 (.0035)	0.028 (.0020)
Difference	0.059	0.028	0.028	0.042	0.020	0.013
Subgroup poverty ‘share’, S_k = v_k.FGT_k(a)/FGT(a)
Female-headed household	0.33105	0.34542	0.37126	0.35755	0.38235	0.40791
Male-headed household	0.66895	0.65458	0.62874	0.64245	0.61765	0.59209
Subgroup poverty ‘risk’ = FGT_k(a)/FGT(a) = S_k/v_k
Female-headed household	1.11913	1.16774	1.25508	1.10339	1.17993	1.25881
Male-headed households	0.94996	0.92954	0.89285	0.95044	0.91374	0.87593

Source: Author’s computation using 2005/06 and 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data. Values in parentheses show standard errors.

Table 5. Estimated probabilities of being non-poor, poor or hard-core poor

Sample	2005/06			2015/16
	Probability of being			Probability of being
	Non-Poor	Poor	Hard-core poor	Non-Poor	Poor	Hard-core poor
National	0.6782	0.2403	0.0816	0.7069	0.2461	0.0470
Female-headed households	0.6055	0.2858	0.1087	0.6736	0.2719	0.0545
Male-headed households	0.7069	0.2211	0.0720	0.7233	0.2332	0.0435
Rural	0.5800	0.3007	0.1193	0.6548	0.2862	0.0590
Female-headed households	0.5214	0.3320	0.1466	0.6307	0.3042	0.0651
Male-headed households	0.6069	0.2850	0.1081	0.6679	0.2763	0.0558
Urban	0.7979	0.1569	0.0453	0.7762	0.1907	0.0332
Female-headed households	0.7388	0.1991	0.0620	0.7415	0.2187	0.0398
Male-headed households	0.8167	0.1430	0.0403	0.7907	0.1788	0.0305

Source: Author’s computation using 2005/06 and 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data

Table

Variables	2005/06			2015/16
	p0	p1	p2	P0	P1	P2
	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean
RESIDENCE
Male headed households	0.4288(0.0012)	0.1578(0.0006)	0.0803(0.0003)	0.3622(0.0002)	0.1047(0.0001)	0.0451(0.0000)
Female headed households	0.4267(0.0017)	0.1570(0.0008)	0.0798(0.0005)	0.3619(0.0003)	0.1045(0.0001)	0.0451(0.0001)
difference	0.0021(0.0021)	0.0008(0.0010)	0.0005(0.0006)	0.0003(0.0003)	0.0002(0.0001)	0.0001(0.0001)
RECEIVED CASH TRANSFERS
Male headed households	0.4281(0.0011)	0.1573(0.0005)	0.0800(0.0003)	0.3612(0.0003)	0.1044(0.0001)	0.0451(0.0001)
Female headed households	0.4287(0.0019)	0.1576(0.0009)	0.0800(0.0005)	0.3617(0.0003)	0.1045(0.0001)	0.0450(0.0001)
difference	−0.0006(0.0021)	−0.0003(0.0011)	0.0000(0.0006)	−0.0005(0.0004)	−0.0001(0.0002)	0.0000(0.0001)
SECONDARY EDUCATION
Male headed households	0.4304(0.0015)	0.1584(0.0008)	0.0805(0.0004)	0.3612(0.0002)	0.1045(0.0001)	0.0451(0.0001)
Female headed households	0.4224(0.0028)	0.1571(0.0013)	0.0805(0.0008)	0.3611(0.0004)	0.1044(0.0002)	0.0450(0.0001)
difference	0.0080(0.0032)***	0.0013(0.0016)	0.0000(0.0009)	0.0001(0.0005)	0.0002(0.0002)	0.0001(0.0001)
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
Male headed households	0.4249(0.0044)	0.1564(0.0020)	0.0793(0.0011)	0.3598(0.0006)	0.1037(0.0003)	0.0447(0.0001)
Female headed households	0.4134(0.0101)	0.1522(0.0050)	0.0782(0.0027)	0.3592(0.0013)	0.1039(0.0006)	0.0449(0.0003)
difference	0.0115(0.0112)	0.0042(0.0052)	0.0011(0.0029)	0.0005(0.0014)	−0.0002(0.0006)	−0.0002(0.0003)
LITERACY
Male headed households	0.4293(0.0010)	0.1577(0.0005)	0.0801(0.0003)	0.3614(0.0002)	0.1045(0.0001)	0.0450(0.0000)
Female headed households	0.4252(0.0018)	0.1574(0.0009)	0.0804(0.0005)	0.3615(0.0002)	0.1044(0.0001)	0.0450(0.0001)
difference	0.0041(0.0021)**	0.0003(0.0010)	−0.0003(0.0006)	0.0000(0.0003)	0.0000(0.0001)	0.0000(0.0001)
EMPLOYMENT IN PUBLIC/PRIVATE SECTOR
Male headed households	0.4293(0.0017)	0.1581(0.0009)	0.0805(0.0005)	0.3610(0.0002)	0.1043(0.0001)	0.0450(0.0001)
Female headed households	0.4254(0.0032)	0.1579(0.0015)	0.0806(0.0008)	0.3607(0.0004)	0.1042(0.0002)	0.0450(0.0001)
difference	0.0039(0.0037)	0.0002(0.0018)	−0.0001(0.0010)	0.0003(0.0005)	0.0001(0.0002)	0.0000(0.0001)
AGRICULTURAL EMPLOYMENT
Male headed households	0.4283(0.0016)	0.1570(0.0008)	0.0798(0.0004)	0.3623(0.0003)	0.1048(0.0001)	0.0452(0.0001)
Female headed households	0.4235(0.0024)	0.1560(0.0012)	0.0793(0.0007)	0.3619(0.0003)	0.1044(0.0001)	0.0450(0.0001)
difference	0.0048(0.0029)*	0.0010(0.0014)	0.0005(0.0008)	0.0004(0.0004)	0.0004(0.0002)**	0.0002(0.0001)**

Source: Author’s calculation using the 2005/06 and 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data. Standard errors are in parenthesis. ***, **, * represent establishment of significance level at 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.

Table

Variable	Pooled sample	Female headed households’ Sample	Male headed households’ sample
	Coef.	Coef.	Coef.
Time Dummy	−0.161(0.046)***	−0.152(0.081)*	−0.135(0.057)**
Female Headed Household	−0.122(0.041) ***
Received cash transfers	0.020(0.034)	−0.044(0.055)	0.083(0.043)*
Household Size	0.247(0.008) ***	0.290(0.015) ***	0.221(0.011) ***
Age of household head	0.010(0.006)*	0.011(0.009)	0.007(0.008)
Household head’s age squared	0.000(0.000)	0.000(0.000)	0.000(0.000)
Literacy	−0.507(0.056) ***	−0.494(0.093) ***	−0.519(0.071) ***
Residence	−0.278(0.036) ***	−0.234(0.062) ***	−0.284(0.044) ***
Dependency ratio	0.055(0.011) ***	0.057(0.017) ***	0.056(0.015) ***
University Education	−2.840(0.188) ***	−3.108(0.527) ***	−2.681(0.205) ***
Secondary Education	−1.106(0.071) ***	−1.382(0.126) ***	−0.936(0.090) ***
Primary Education	−0.239(0.061) ***	−0.418(0.095) ***	−0.090(0.081)
Employment in Public/Private sector	−0.283(0.057) ***	−0.237(0.097) **	−0.364(0.074) ***
Business Employment	−0.137(0.054) ***	−0.021(0.088)	−0.248(0.072) ***
Agricultural Employment	−0.204(0.051) ***	−0.197(0.078)**	−0.248(0.070) ***
Monogamous	−0.041(0.058)	−0.244(0.079) ***	0.381(0.129) ***
Polygamous	−0.144(0.066)**	−0.182(0.093)**	0.216(0.139)
Never Married	0.190(0.084)**	0.186(0.119)	0.511(0.157) ***
Separated/Divorced	0.145(0.075)*	0.212(0.095)**	0.206(0.167)
Mombasa	−0.669(0.151) ***	−0.716(0.291) ***	−0.679(0.178) ***
Kilifi	0.115(0.120)	0.166(0.212)	0.061(0.147)
Tana_River	0.671(0.128) ***	0.432(0.219)**	0.789(0.160) ***
Lamu	−0.788(0.138) ***	−0.873(0.248) ***	−0.778(0.168) ***
Taita_Taveta	0.053(0.132)	−0.312(0.246)	0.192(0.158)
Garissa	0.527(0.132) ***	0.301(0.258)	0.636(0.155) ***
Wajir	−0.272(0.130)**	−0.486(0.228)**	−0.139(0.161)
Mandera	0.808(0.141) ***	0.642(0.231) ***	0.897(0.182) ***
Marsabit	0.007(0.134)	−0.015(0.236)	0.016(0.164)
Isiolo	−0.064(0.123)	−0.290(0.213)	0.053(0.152)
Meru	−0.985(0.132) ***	−0.827(0.234) ***	−1.083(0.160) ***
Tharaka_Nithi	−0.579(0.141) ***	−0.300(0.242)	−0.752(0.176) ***
Embu	−0.255(0.125)**	−0.104(0.230)	−0.322(0.149)**
Kitui	0.197(0.114)*	0.111(0.193)	0.258(0.145)*
Machakos	−0.341(0.127) ***	−0.548(0.227)**	−0.221(0.155)
Makueni	−0.104(0.125)	−0.224(0.209)	−0.001(0.160)
Nyandarua	0.001(0.133)	0.059(0.231)	−0.038(0.164)
Nyeri	−0.483(0.138) ***	−0.297(0.232)	−0.614(0.175) ***
Kirinyaga	−0.502(0.140) ***	−0.439(0.262)*	−0.554(0.167) ***
Muranga	−0.551(0.134) ***	−0.502(0.227)**	−0.588(0.168) ***
Kiambu	−0.416(0.137) ***	−0.144(0.252)	−0.544(0.165) ***
Turkana	1.218(0.132) ***	1.304(0.203) ***	1.019(0.185) ***
Samburu	0.986(0.133) ***	0.923(0.222) ***	1.005(0.167) ***
Trans_Nzoia	−0.287(0.134)**	−0.417(0.256)	−0.272(0.157)*
Uasin_Gishu	0.146(0.122)	0.078(0.232)	0.148(0.144)
Elgeyo_Marakwet	0.267(0.123)**	0.473(0.236)**	0.194(0.145)
Nandi	−0.141(0.126)	−0.073(0.239)	−0.190(0.149)
Baringo	0.044(0.129)	0.165(0.232)	−0.025(0.155)
Laikipia	0.308(0.128)**	0.522(0.219)**	0.132(0.162)
Nakuru	−0.219(0.128)*	−0.305(0.236)	−0.209(0.153)
Narok	−1.088(0.134) ***	−0.978(0.257) ***	−1.119(0.157) ***
Kajiado	0.308(0.133)**	0.263(0.243)	0.284(0.160)*
Kericho	−0.216(0.123)*	−0.166(0.228)	−0.268(0.147)*
Bomet	0.065(0.125)	−0.231(0.248)	0.149(0.145)
Kakamega	0.035(0.116)	−0.003(0.212)	0.055(0.138)
Vihiga	0.342(0.124) ***	0.429(0.210)**	0.313(0.157)**
Bungoma	−0.015(0.119)	0.166(0.217)	−0.103(0.143)
Busia	1.063(0.120) ***	0.929(0.211) ***	1.137(0.146) ***
Siaya	−0.041(0.124)	−0.156(0.208)	0.031(0.156)
Kisumu	0.146(0.119)	0.061(0.217)	0.179(0.143)
Homa_Bay	−0.264(0.117)**	−0.301(0.207)	−0.285(0.144)**
Migori	−0.017(0.120)	−0.171(0.205)	0.058(0.150)
Kisii	0.345(0.118) ***	0.256(0.215)	0.370(0.143)***
Nyamira	0.003(0.129)	−0.034(0.223)	0.024(0.160)
Nairobi_City	−0.879(0.144) ***	−0.931(0.306) ***	−0.893(0.164) ***
_cons	−0.813(0.172) ***	−0.937(0.292) ***	−1.130(0.240) ***
Pseudo R-squared	0.1879	0.2013	0.1857
Log likelihood	-13202.798	-4416.2492	-8726.4931
LR chi2 statistics	0.0000	0.0000	0.0000
Number of obs	25,425	8,484	16,941

Source: author’s calculation using the 2005/06 and 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data. The results present impact effects. Standard errors are in parenthesis. ***, **, * represent establishment of significance level at 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.

Table

Variables	Pooled sample	Female headed households’ sample	Male headed households’ sample
	Coef.	Coef.	Coef.
Time dummy	−0.297(0.043)***	−0.323(0.076) ***	−0.256(0.054) ***
Female Headed Household	−0.129(0.039)***
Received cash transfers	0.009(0.032)	−0.031(0.052)	0.062(0.041)
Household Size	0.236(0.008) ***	0.262(0.013) ***	0.218(0.010) ***
Age of household head	0.017(0.005) ***	0.023(0.009) ***	0.012(0.007)*
Household head’s age squared	0.000(0.000) ***	0.000(0.000) ***	0.000(0.000)
Literacy	−0.508(0.052) ***	−0.513(0.087) ***	−0.510(0.066) ***
Residence	−0.163(0.034) ***	−0.094(0.058)*	−0.184(0.042) ***
Dependency ratio	0.046(0.010) ***	0.051(0.015) ***	0.045(0.013) ***
University Education	−2.885(0.186) ***	−3.074(0.524) ***	−2.776(0.203) ***
Secondary Education	−1.157(0.068) ***	−1.363(0.120) ***	−1.031(0.085) ***
Primary Education	−0.290(0.057) ***	−0.419(0.089) ***	−0.177(0.075) **
Employment in Public/Private sector	−0.335(0.053) ***	−0.265(0.091) ***	−0.416(0.069) ***
Business Employment	−0.210(0.051) ***	−0.098(0.081)	−0.316(0.067) ***
Agricultural Employment	−0.251(0.047) ***	−0.279(0.072) ***	−0.274(0.064) ***
Monogamous	−0.040(0.055)	−0.226(0.074) ***	0.356(0.126) ***
Polygamous	−0.130(0.062)**	−0.143(0.085)*	0.198(0.135)
Never Married	0.206(0.081) ***	0.199(0.114)*	0.498(0.154) ***
Separated/Divorced	0.126(0.072)*	0.182(0.089)**	0.171(0.164)
Mombasa	−0.638(0.147) ***	−0.617(0.281)**	−0.677(0.174) ***
Kilifi	0.055(0.113)	0.065(0.196)	0.028(0.140)
Tana_River	0.626(0.116) ***	0.548(0.199) ***	0.664(0.143) ***
Lamu	−0.842(0.135) ***	−0.826(0.239) ***	−0.869(0.164) ***
Taita_Taveta	0.034(0.128)	−0.276(0.237)	0.156(0.152)
Garissa	0.504(0.117) ***	0.156(0.229)	0.645(0.138) ***
Wajir	−0.415(0.118) ***	−0.506(0.206) ***	−0.335(0.146)**
Mandera	0.903(0.117) ***	0.745(0.193) ***	1.022(0.152) ***
Marsabit	0.057(0.124)	0.092(0.219)	0.040(0.152)
Isiolo	−0.026(0.115)	−0.092(0.198)	0.011(0.143)
Meru	−1.023(0.129) ***	−0.774(0.226) ***	−1.163(0.158) ***
Tharaka_Nithi	−0.593(0.138) ***	−0.237(0.233)	−0.807(0.173) ***
Embu	−0.221(0.121)*	−0.014(0.223)	−0.312(0.144)**
Kitui	0.219(0.108)**	0.205(0.181)	0.253(0.138)*
Machakos	−0.284(0.123)**	−0.401(0.218)*	−0.203(0.151)
Makueni	−0.046(0.121)	−0.110(0.201)	0.037(0.153)
Nyandarua	−0.009(0.128)	0.142(0.220)	−0.090 (0.158)
Nyeri	−0.496(0.135) ***	−0.243(0.223)	−0.659(0.171) ***
Kirinyaga	−0.529(0.137) ***	−0.434(0.255)*	−0.598(0.164) ***
Muranga	−0.537(0.130) ***	−0.435(0.220)**	−0.591(0.164) ***
Kiambu	−0.399(0.134) ***	−0.119(0.241)	−0.537(0.162) ***
Turkana	1.765(0.117) ***	1.902(0.179) ***	1.529(0.164) ***
Samburu	1.108(0.117) ***	1.077(0.197) ***	1.129(0.148) ***
Trans_Nzoia	−0.244(0.129)*	−0.304(0.247)	−0.253(0.151)*
Uasin_Gishu	0.210(0.116)*	0.251(0.219)	0.170(0.137)
Elgeyo_Marakwet	0.303(0.117) ***	0.664(0.221) ***	0.163(0.139)
Nandi	−0.106(0.121)	0.052(0.226)	−0.194(0.144)
Baringo	0.062(0.122)	0.314(0.220)	−0.061(0.148)
Laikipia	0.335(0.122) ***	0.624(0.204) ***	0.117(0.156)
Nakuru	−0.214(0.124)*	−0.179(0.226)	−0.259(0.149)*
Narok	−1.092(0.131) ***	−0.926(0.248) ***	−1.157(0.155) ***
Kajiado	0.338(0.127) ***	0.331(0.226)	0.301(0.153)**
Kericho	−0.107(0.116)	−0.003(0.207)	−0.196(0.141)
Bomet	−0.009(0.118)	−0.206(0.237)	0.038(0.137)
Kakamega	0.032(0.110)	0.022(0.201)	0.040(0.132)
Vihiga	0.333(0.118) ***	0.456(0.198)**	0.289(0.150)*
Bungoma	0.009(0.114)	0.157(0.206)	−0.070(0.138)
Busia	1.105(0.108) ***	0.939(0.192) ***	1.197(0.132) ***
Siaya	−0.048(0.119)	−0.125(0.200)	0.012(0.151)
Kisumu	0.140(0.115)	0.085(0.206)	0.158(0.138)
Homa_Bay	−0.222(0.113)**	−0.182(0.197)	−0.279(0.140)**
Migori	−0.051(0.115)	−0.127(0.195)	−0.016(0.143)
Kisii	0.325(0.113) ***	0.305(0.204)	0.319(0.136)**
Nyamira	0.043(0.125)	0.043(0.214)	0.046(0.155)
Nairobi_City	−0.852(0.141) ***	−0.847(0.300) ***	−0.888(0.161) ***
/cut1	0.770(0.165)	1.045(0.276)	0.989(0.231)
/cut2	2.791(0.166)	3.027(0.279)	3.047(0.233)
Pseudo R-squared	0.1634	0.1716	0.1627
Log likelihood	-17802.26	-6100.6878	-11637.718
LR chi2 statistics	0.0000	0.0000	0.0000
Number of obs	25,425	8,484	16,941

Source: Author’s calculation using the 2005/06 and 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data. The results present impact effects. Standard errors are in parenthesis. ***, **, * represent establishment of significance level at 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.

Table

Variable	Coef.	Proportion explained, %	Proportion unexplained, %
Received cash transfers	−0.0047(0.0021)**	11.02	2.40
Household Size	0.0176(0.0009)***	−41.47	−9.03
Age of household head	−0.0013(0.0011)	3.10	0.68
Literacy	−0.0229(0.0037) ***	53.97	11.75
Residence	0.0052(0.0008) ***	−12.16	−2.65
University Education	−0.0044(0.0004) ***	10.39	2.26
Secondary Education	−0.0174(0.0030) ***	40.84	8.89
Primary Education	−0.0001(0.0006)	0.23	0.05
Employment in Public/Private sector	−0.0113(0.0028) ***	26.66	5.80
Business Employment	−0.0045(0.0013) ***	10.58	2.30
Agricultural Employment	0.0060(0.0021) ***	−14.02	−3.05
Monogamous	0.0180(0.0142)	−42.45	−9.24
Polygamous	−0.0007(0.0008)	1.61	0.35
Never Married	−0.0008(0.0008)	1.98	0.43
Separated/Divorced	−0.0013(0.0030)	3.16	0.69
Mombasa	−0.0010(0.0005)**	2.26	0.49
Kilifi	0.0000(0.0001)	0.11	0.02
Tana_River	−0.0001(0.0001)**	0.34	0.07
Lamu	0.0000(0.0000)	0.02	0.01
Taita_Taveta	0.0000(0.0001)	−0.10	−0.02
Garissa	0.0003(0.0001)**	−0.70	−0.15
Wajir	0.0000(0.0000)	0.00	0.00
Mandera	−0.0007(0.0001) ***	1.74	0.38
Marsabit	0.0000(0.0000)	0.08	0.02
Isiolo	0.0000(0.0000)	0.06	0.01
Meru	−0.0003(0.0003)	0.63	0.14
Tharaka_Nithi	0.0001(0.0001) ***	−0.35	−0.08
Embu	−0.0003(0.0002)	0.74	0.16
Kitui	−0.0012(0.0005)**	2.87	0.62
Machakos	0.0002(0.0001)	−0.36	−0.08
Makueni	−0.0002(0.0004)	0.52	0.11
Nyandarua	0.0000(0.0001)	0.02	0.00
Nyeri	0.0003(0.0001)**	−0.65	−0.14
Kirinyaga	−0.0003(0.0002)**	0.81	0.18
Muranga	0.0007(0.0002) ***	−1.62	−0.35
Kiambu	−0.0012(0.0006)**	2.76	0.60
Turkana	−0.0044(0.0009) ***	10.26	2.23
Samburu	−0.0006(0.0001) ***	1.37	0.30
Trans_Nzoia	−0.0001(0.0002)	0.35	0.08
Uasin_Gishu	0.0003(0.0002)	−0.74	−0.16
Elgeyo_Marakwet	0.0001(0.0001)	−0.33	−0.07
Nandi	−0.0001(0.0002)	0.30	0.07
Baringo	0.0000(0.0001)	0.04	0.01
Laikipia	−0.0001(0.0001)	0.16	0.04
Nakuru	−0.0002(0.0004)	0.40	0.09
Narok	−0.0004(0.0001) ***	0.97	0.21
Kajiado	0.0001(0.0001)	−0.29	−0.06
Kericho	−0.0001(0.0001)	0.25	0.05
Bomet	0.0003(0.0001) ***	−0.81	−0.18
Kakamega	0.0000(0.0001)	−0.01	0.00
Vihiga	−0.0003(0.0002)	0.60	0.13
Bungoma	−0.0001(0.0001)	0.14	0.03
Busia	−0.0015(0.0003) ***	3.62	0.79
Siaya	0.0003(0.0004)	−0.65	−0.14
Kisumu	0.0000(0.0001)	−0.08	−0.02
Homa_Bay	0.0003(0.0002)	−0.61	−0.13
Migori	−0.0001(0.0004)	0.18	0.04
Kisii	0.0002(0.0001)	−0.39	−0.08
Nyamira	−0.0001(0.0001)	0.13	0.03
Nairobi_City	−0.0020(0.0004) ***	4.62	1.01
Proportion explained or unexplained		82.12	17.88
Total gap explained			-0.03505462
Gap in the probability (G=1- G=0)			-0.04268522
Pr(Y!=0|G=1)			0.31335928
Pr(Y!=0|G=0)			0.27067406
Number of obs			25,425
N of obs G=0			16,941
N of obs G=1			8,484

Source: Author’s calculation using the 2005/06 and 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys data. The results present impact and marginal effects. Standard errors are in parenthesis. ***, **, * represent establishment of significance level at 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.