Emerging applications of nanodiamonds in photocatalysis

Figures & data

Figure 1. The optical properties of NDs: (a) UV–vis absorption spectra of Cu₂O, NDs, NDs-Cu₂O, and physical mixture of NDs and Cu₂O [19]. (b) The scattering effect of the NDs in water solution [39]. (c) Fluorescence spectra of NDs suspended in water. Inset: Fluorescence image of NDs suspension excited by 532-nm laser light [2]. (d) Excitation monitored at 450 nm emission (1) and emission at 410 nm excitation (2) spectra of ND-ODA dispersion in dichloromethane; photographs of ND and ND-ODA dispersions in dichloromethane with UV (365 nm, lower row) illumination [3].

Figure 2. Structure of NDs: (a) Schematic diagram of NDs structure [60]. (b) TEM of NDs [61]. (c) XRD patterns of graphite powders and NDs [19]. (d) FTIR spectra of ND and AND-1000 (ND annealed at 1000 °C under nitrogen atmosphere) [61].

Figure 3. Surface functionalization of NDs [16].

Figure 4. Hydrogen treated NDs exhibited an enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen evolution activity [49]: (a) Time-dependent H₂ evolution, by 100 mg of PND, OND, and HND dispersed in 100 mL of water or 30 wt% methanol aqueous solutions under 532 nm Nd-YAG laser pulse irradiation (80 mJ per pulse). (b) Laser power-dependent H₂ evolution (3 h) for the HND.

Figure 5. The structure and photocatalytic hydrogen evolution activity of NDs-Cu₂O [19]: (a) XRD patterns of graphite powders and NDs. (b, c) TEM and HRTEM images of NDs. (d) XRD patterns of NDs-Cu₂O and Cu₂O. (e, f) SEM and TEM images of NDs-Cu₂O. (g) H₂ evolution amounts of NDs-Cu₂O nanocrystals with different ND dosages. (h) Typical time course of H₂ evolution from water under AM 1.5 and visible light irradiation. (i) Comparison of the quantum efficiencies of NDs-Cu₂O under the irradiation with various wavelengths.

Figure 6. The SEM images and the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution performance of ND@g-C₃N₄ [39]: The SEM image of (a) g-C₃N₄ and (b) ND@g-C₃N₄ (ND 10 wt%). (c) H₂ evolution rate for 5 h over ND@g-C₃N₄ with different mass ratio of NDs under visible light irradiation. (d) Comparison of H₂ evolution activity over g-C₃N₄, ND/g-C₃N₄-mix and ND@g-C₃N₄ (ND 10 wt%) heterostructures under visible light irradiation.

Figure 7. The TEM images and photocatalytic toluene degradation activity of ZnO was enhanced after coupling with NDs [18]: HRTEM images of (a) ZnO and (b) ZnO/ND. (c) Photocatalytic degradation of gaseous toluene and the CO₂ yield of ZnO and ZnO/ND catalysts. (d) Stability after cycles: red lines represented ZnO and green lines represented ZnO/ND.

Figure 8. (a, b) HR-TEM images of ND (8 wt%)/WO₃. (c) Magnified HR-TEM image from selected area (red square in panel (b)). (d) SAED pattern of the region depicted in panel (c). (e–h) EELS elemental maps of C (panel (e)), W (panel (f)), O (panel (g)), and C + W + O (panel (h)) in ND (8 wt %)/WO₃. (i) Time-dependent profiles of the photocatalytic degradation of CH₃CHO. (j) The concurrent production of CO₂ on bare WO₃, ND (8 wt%)/WO₃, and Pt (1 wt%)/WO₃ [46].

Figure 9. The enhanced photocatalytic pharmaceuticals (DP and AMX) degradation activity of treated NDs modified TiO₂ [81]. Normalized concentration of (a) DP and (b) AMX as a function of time for TiO₂ and ND-TiO₂ (1.0 g L⁻¹) composites under near-UV/Vis irradiation. (c) Effect of EDTA and t-BuOH on the photocatalytic degradation under near-UV/Vis irradiation of DP using NDDT and NDAT samples. Curves represent the fitting of the pseudo-first order equation to the experimental data. (d) Reusability of the NDDT and NDAT samples for the DP degradation in three consecutive runs.

Figure 10. BDND used to enhance the photocatalytic RhB degradation activity of g-C₃N₄ [20]. (a) XRD patterns of the as-prepared g-C₃N₄, BDND@g-C₃N₄ (BDND 3 wt%), and BDND. (b) UV-vis DRS spectra of g-C₃N₄ and BDND@g-C₃N₄ (BDND 3 wt%) heterostructures and (αhν)² versus hν curve of g-C₃N₄ and BDND@g-C₃N₄ (insert), respectively. (c) Time-dependent absorption spectral pattern of RhB aqueous solution in the presence of BDND@g-C₃N₄ photocatalyst under visible light irradiation. (d) Photocatalytic degradation of RhB in aqueous solution over g-C₃N₄, BDND and BDND@g-C₃N₄ photocatalysts.

Table 1. Comparation of photocatalytic activity based on NDs contained composite photocatalysts toward organic degradation with semiconductor photocatalysts reported recently.

Samples	Light source	Organic	Kinetic rate constant (min^−1)	Refs.
Ag/ND/g-C3N4	300 W, Xe lamp VL:≥420 nm	RhB	0.088	[50]
Boron doped ND/g-C3N4	300 W, VL:≥420 nm	RhB	0.107	[20]
ND/TiO2	350 W, VL:≥400 nm	diphenhydramine	0.091	[80]
ND/ZnO	300 W, VL:≥420 nm	gaseous toluene	No	[18]
ND/TiO2	UV lamp-Vilber Lourmat France-4 W, AM 1.5	toluene	No	[55]
ND/TiO2	15 W fluorescent lamps, VL:≥420 nm	microcystin-LA	0.440	[81]
ND/WO3	150 W halogen lamp VL:≥420 nm	acetaldehyde	0.0516	[46]
ND/CuFe- layered double hydroxide	500 W Xe lamp VL: ≥420 nm	MB	0.023	[78]
Core/shell-structured NDs	500 W, VL:≥420 nm	methyl orange	No	[38]
SnO/ND	500 W Xe lamp, VL: ≥420 nm	MO	0.322	[47]
ND/TiO2	150 medium-pressure mercury vapor lamp (λ ex c = 366, 436 and 546 nm)	diphenhydramine and amoxicillin	0.090, 0.083	[41]
ND/TiO2	UV illumination (20-W Omnilux lamp)	bisphenol A	7.57 × 10^-6	[53]
TiO2/WO3	12 mW/cm^2, fluorescent lamp, 380–680 nm	Toluene	No	[82]
Pd-doped TiO2	100 W high-pressure mercury lamp, UV irradiation	MO	0.018	[83]
Ag/TiO2	300 W high-pressure Hg lamp, UV microwave irradiation	MO	0.101	[84]
graphene-TiO2	VL: ≥400 nm	MB	0.029	[85]

VL: visible light; AM 1.5: simulated solar light irradiation; RhB: Rhodamine B; MO: methyl orange.

Figure 11. The photochemical reduction performance of diamond analyzed FTIR spectra: FTIR spectra of gaseous headspace demonstrating reduction of CO₂ to CO by illuminated diamond, along with control samples [86].

Figure 12. The character of NDs in photocatalytic reduce RGO [49]: (a) Photograph of the GO, HND, and 1:5 ratio of GO:HND (dispersed in water) before and after laser irradiation. (b) TEM image of HND-RGO composites. (c) AFM image and height profile of the photodetector device consisting of 10 nm (avg.) thick HND-RGO. (d) I–V characteristics of the RGO and HND-RGO under 514 nm Ar ion laser irradiation and in the dark, and (e) their DI-t curves under chopped irradiation.

Figure 13. The stability of NDs-based composite photocatalyst: (a) Recycled photocatalytic activity of HND for the H₂ evolution [49]. (b) Cycling tests of NDs-Cu₂O under AM 1.5 irradiation [19]. (c) Cycling tests of ND@g-C₃N₄ (ND 10 wt%) under visible light irradiation [39]. (d) XRD patterns of ZnO/ND and ZnO catalysts before and after five reaction cycles [86].

Figure 14. The optical absorption and charge-separation properties of NDs-based composites: UV–vis absorption spectra of Cu₂O, NDs, NDs-Cu₂O, and physical mixture of NDs and Cu₂O (a) and their Tauc plots (b) [19]. (c) Transient photocurrent response curves and (d) electrochemical impedance spectra of ZnO and ZnO/ND catalysts [86].

Figure 15. Proposed mechanism for photocatalytic degradation of toluene upon ZnO/ND photocatalysts [18].

Figure 16. Schematic illustration of proposed for the enhanced photocatalytic RhB degradation upon BDND@g-C₃N₄ [20].

Figure 17. Schematic diagram for antifouling and self-cleaning mechanisms of the photocatalytic membrane (PVDF-CND/TiO₂) [40].

Figure 18. The significant light scattering effect of NDs [39]. (a) UV-vis DRS spectra of g-C₃N₄ and ND@g-C₃N₄ (ND 10 wt%) heterostructures and corresponding scattering effect (insert) of the NDs and Pt nanoparticles in water solution. (b) Behavior of light when propagating through g-C₃N₄ and ND@g-C₃N₄ (ND 10 wt%) heterostructures.

Lin Z, Xiao J, Li L, et al. Nanodiamond‐embedded p‐type copper (I) oxide nanocrystals for broad‐spectrum photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Adv Energy Mater. 2016; 6(4): 1501865.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Su LX, Huang QZ, Lou Q, et al. Effective light scattering and charge separation in nanodiamond@ g-C3N4 for enhanced visible-light hydrogen evolution. Carbon. 2018; 139: 164–171.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chang YR, Lee HY, Chen K, et al. Mass production and dynamic imaging of fluorescent nanodiamonds. Nat Nanotechnol. 2008;3(5): 284–288.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mochalin VN, Gogotsi Y. Wet chemistry route to hydrophobic blue fluorescent nanodiamond. J Am Chem Soc. 2009;131(13): 4594–4595.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sun X, Wang R, Su D. Research progress in metal-free carbon-based catalysts. Chin J Catal. 2013; 34(3): 508–523.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Duan X, Su C, Zhou L, et al. Surface controlled generation of reactive radicals from persulfate by carbocatalysis on nanodiamonds. Appl Catal B. 2016; 194: 7–15.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zhang Y, Rhee KY, Hui D, et al. A critical review of nanodiamond based nanocomposites: synthesis, properties and applications. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143: 19–27.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Jang DM, Myung Y, Im HS, et al. Nanodiamonds as photocatalysts for reduction of water and graphene oxide. Chem Commun. 2012; 48(5): 696–698.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liu J, Wang P, Qu W, et al. Nanodiamond-decorated ZnO catalysts with enhanced photocorrosion-resistance for photocatalytic degradation of gaseous toluene. Appl Catal B. 2019; 257: 117880.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kim HI, Kim HN, Weon S, et al. Robust co-catalytic performance of nanodiamonds loaded on WO3 for the decomposition of volatile organic compounds under visible light. ACS Catal. 2016; 6(12): 8350–8360.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sampaio MJ, Pastrana-Martínez LM, Silva AMT, et al. Nanodiamond-TiO2 composites for photocatalytic degradation of microcystin-LA in aqueous solutions under simulated solar light. RSC Adv. 2015; 5(72): 58363–58370.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Su LX, Liu ZY, Ye YL, et al. Heterostructured boron doped nanodiamonds@g-C3N4 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic capability under visible light irradiation. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2019; 44(36): 19805–19815.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Su LX, Lou Q, Shan CX, et al. Ag/Nanodiamond/g-C3N4 heterostructures with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic performance. Appl Surf Sci. 2020; 525: 146576.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Pastrana-Martínez LM, Morales-Torres S, Carabineiro SAC, et al. Nanodiamond-TiO2 composites for heterogeneous photocatalysis. Chempluschem. 2013; 78(8): 801–807.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kim KD, Dey NK, Seo HO, et al. Photocatalytic decomposition of toluene by nanodiamond-supported TiO2 prepared using atomic layer deposition. Appl Catal A. 2011; 408(1–2): 148–155.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liu L, Li S, An Y, et al. Hybridization of nanodiamond and CuFe-LDH as heterogeneous photoactivator for visible-light driven photo-fenton reaction: photocatalytic activity and mechanism. Catalysts. 2019; 9(2): 118.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liang B, Zhang L, Wang W, et al. Nanodiamond core/onion-like carbon shell materials with excellent visible light photocatalytic activity. Mater Res Express. 2019; 6(4): 045609.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liang B, Zhang W, Zhang Y, et al. Nanodiamond incorporated in SnO composites with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Diamond Relat Mater. 2018; 89: 108–113.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Pastrana-Martínez LM, Morales-Torres S, Carabineiro SA, et al. Photocatalytic activity of functionalized nanodiamond-TiO2 composites towards water pollutants degradation under UV/Vis irradiation. Appl Surf Sci. 2018; 458: 839–848.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hunge Y, Yadav A, Khan S, et al. Photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol A using titanium dioxide@ nanodiamond composites under UV light illumination. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2021; 582: 1058–1066.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zhang L, Qin M, Yu W, et al. Heterostructured TiO2/WO3 nanocomposites for photocatalytic degradation of toluene under visible light. J Electrochem Soc. 2017; 164(14): H1086–H1090.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nguyen CH, Fu CC, Juang RS. Degradation of methylene blue and methyl orange by palladium-doped TiO2 photocatalysis for water reuse: efficiency and degradation pathways. J Clean Prod. 2018; 202: 413–427.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ling LL, Feng Y, Li H, et al. Microwave induced surface enhanced pollutant adsorption and photocatalytic degradation on Ag/TiO2. Appl Surf Sci. 2019; 483: 772–778.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Alamelu K, Raja V, Shiamala L, et al. Biphasic TiO2 nanoparticles decorated graphene nanosheets for visible light driven photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes. Appl Surf Sci. 2018; 430: 145–154.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Habisreutinger SN, Schmidt‐Mende L, Stolarczyk JK. Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 on TiO2 and other semiconductors. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2013; 52(29): 7372–7408.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Li Y, He S, Zhou Z, et al. Carboxylated nanodiamond-enhanced photocatalytic membranes with improved antifouling and self-cleaning properties. Ind Eng Chem Res. 2020; 59(8): 3538–3549.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar