Diamond and carbon nanostructures for biomedical applications

Figures & data

Figure 1. (a) Scanning electron microscopy of nanodiamonds. (b) Mechanism of nanodiamond formation from Q-Carbon film. (c) Formation of nanodiamonds during initial stages and electron backscatter diffraction pattern (from red dot), showing characteristic diamond Kikuchi pattern. (d) Nanodiamonds covering the entire area with inset showing twins [18]. Reprinted with permission of Creative Commons license.

Table 1. Reported synthesis process of nanodiamonds.

Synthetic technique	Starting materials	Size	Yield	Advantages	Disadvantages	References
Detonation technique	TNT, RDX	∼5 nm	1%–8%	Low cost, ease for mass production, narrow size distribution	Strong agglomeration, low purity	[17, 19, 20]
Laser ablation	Graphite, coal	3–70 nm	5–10%	Facile, mild conditions	Difficult to industrialize	[21, 22]
CVD	Methane, hydrogen, nitrogen	30–400 nm	N/A	Ease for mass production	Could be Contaminated	[23, 24]
HPHT	Graphite, adamantane	1–55 nm	50–62%	High purity, high yield, low cost, outstanding optical property	Polydisperse and irregular shape, harsh reaction conditions	[25, 26]

Figure 2. (a) Cyclic voltammetry test results of glucose sensing. (b) Amperometric performance of different electrodes at 0.5 V in 0.1 M NaOH at a scan rate of 50 mV s⁻¹. (c) Calibration curves of glucose detection from Si, Pyr-Si, CuO and NOND electrodes. (d) Amperometric response of CuO/NOND/Pyr-Si electrodes at 0.5 V in 0.1 M NaOH [31]. Reprinted with permission. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society.

Figure 3. (A) Schematic illustration of energy states of typical luminescent crystallographic defects in diamond and the photoluminescence originates from different colour centres. N3, H3 and NV centres are nitrogen-related centres emitting in the visible spectrum range; the H10 centre emitting in the UV is attributed to an electronic transition to an excited state of the H3 centre. (B) The crystallographic structures of N3, H3 and NV centres composed of complexes of a vacancy and nitrogen atoms [63]. Reprinted with permission. Copyright 2019, American Vacuum Society.

Figure 4. Fluorescence spectra of DNDs with different functional groups (hydrogen-, hydroxyl-, carboxyl-, ethylenediamine- and octadecylamine-functionalized DNDs) excited at different wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm [61]. Reprinted with permission. Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society.

Figure 5. Schematic representation for the fabrication of gold decorated nanodiamond nanoparticles [64]. Reprinted with permission. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.

Figure 6. (a) Atomic force microscope image graphene nanoribbons. Scale bar is 400 nm. (b) Height profile along the blue line shown in (a). (c) Scanning tunnelling microscope images of graphene nanoribbon. Scale bar is 1 nm. (d, e) TEM images of graphene nanoribbons. Scale bars are 50 nm. Reproduced with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry [80].

Figure 7. (a) Schematic of GO-based fluorescence polarisation biosensor for identification of Rev peptide antagonists; ΔFP, changes in FP. (b) Chemical structure of proflavine (Pro) and the sequence of the RRE RNA model nucleotide in the study [86]. Reprinted with permission. Copyright 2018, with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 8. (a) Design of the spider-web-inspired elastomer-filled graphene woven fabric. (b) Schematic representation of the fabrication procedure of elastomer-filled graphene woven fabric [129]. Reprinted with permission. Copyright © 2019, American Chemical Society.

Figure 9. (a) Schematic of the design of nanographene flexible electrode. (b) Images of nanographene flexible electrode attached arm. (c) SEM-image of the patterned area of the flexible polyimide substrate. (d) Raman spectrum of nanographene aggregates. (e) The resistance changes upon number of bending cycles [130]. Reprinted with permission of Creative Commons license.

Table 2. Physical properties of various forms of carbon allotropes.

	Diamond	Graphene	Diamond-like carbon	Graphite-like carbon
Composition	sp^3 bonded carbon	sp^2 bonded carbon	Mainly sp^3 bonded carbon	Mainly sp^2 bonded carbon
Crystal structure	Diamond cubic	Hexagonal
Density	3.5 g/cm^3	2.3 g/cm^3	∼3 g/cm^3	2.5–2.9 g/cm^3
Electrical resistivity	10^13–10^16 Ω cm	∼10^-6 Ω cm	10^7–10^14 Ω cm	∼10^-3 Ω cm
Band gap	5.45 eV	0 eV	∼2.5 eV	∼1 eV
Elasticity module	∼1.2 Tpa	∼1 Tpa	∼0.9 Tpa	∼0.18 Tpa

Figure 10. (A, B) SEM images of long MWCNTs grown on 15 nm and 50 nm ta-C films. (C, D) cross-sectional TEM micrographs of MWCNTs deposited on 15 and 50 nm ta-C films. (E) XPS wide spectra (with C 1s spectra as insets) and (F) Raman spectra of the MWCNTs deposited ta-C film samples [140]. Copyright 2018, reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 11. (A) Design of amorphous carbon-based lateral flow immunoassay. (B) Qualitative results of amorphous carbon-based lateral flow immunoassay. (C) Semi-quantitative results of amorphous carbon-based lateral flow immunoassay [145]. Reprinted with permission. Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society.

Figure 12. (a) Schematic illustration of DLC coating. (b) SEM image of DLC coating (oblique angle view of the cross-section) [153]. Copyright 2017, reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

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