Pesticides use and its effects on grape production: A review

Figures & data

Table 1. Registered insecticides use in grape production

S/NO	Active ingredient	Contact or Systemic nature	Group name
1	Carbaryl	Contact	Carbamate
3	Zeta-cypermethrin	Contact	Pyrethroids
4	Cypermethrin	Contact
5	Acetamiprid	Contact/Systemic	Neonicotinoid
6	Dinotefuran	Contact/Systemic
7	Imidacloprid	Contact/Systemic
8	Thiamethoxam	Contact/Systemic
9	Phorate	Systemic	Organophosphate
10	Malathion	Contact
11	Dimethoate	Contact
12	Chlorpyriphos	Contact
13	Dichlorvos
14	Malathion	Contact
15	Acephate	Systemic
16	Fipronil	Systemic	Phenylpyrazole

Source: (Maier & Sutherland, 2013; Mani et al., 2014).

Table 2. Registered fungicides commonly used to control grape powdery mildew in the world

S/NO	Active ingredient	Group name (Chemical group)
1	Chlorothalonil	Organochloride
2	Mancozeb	Dithiocarbamates and relatives
3	Metiram
4	Propineb
5	Folpet	Phthalimides
6	Cyprodinil	Anilinopyrimidines
7	Metrafenone	Benzophenone
8	Pyriofenone
9	Carbendazim	Methyl-Benzimidazole Carbamates (MBC fungicides)
10	Thiophanate-methyl
11	Azoxystrobin	Methoxyacrylates
12	Fluoxastrobin	Dihydro-dioxazines
13	Pyraclostrobin	Methoxycarbamates
14	Trifloxystrobin	Oximino acetates
15	Fenpropidin	Amines (“morpholines”)
16	Fenpropimorph
17	Spiroxamine	Spiroketalamines
18	Cyproconazole	Triazoles
19	Difenoconazole
20	Epoxiconazole
21	Flutriafol
22	Hexaconazole
23	Tebuconazole
24	Tetraconazole
25	Triadimefon
26	Triadimenol
27	Sulphur	Inorganic

Source: (Essling et al., 2021; FRAC, 2023b; Lewis et al., 2016; Vielba-Fernández et al., 2020).

Table 3. Chemical classes of fungicides currently registered to control downy mildew

S/NO	Active ingredient	Group name
1	Mancozeb	Dithiocarbamates and relatives
2	Thiram
3	Metalaxyl	Phenylamide (Acylalanines)
4	Copper	Copper-based
5	Captan	Phthalimide
6	Folpet
7	Flutriafol	Triazoles
8	Tebuconazole
9	Propiconazole
10	Myclobutanil
11	Dithianon	Quinones
12	Pyrimethanil	Anilino- Pyrimidines
13	Cyprodinil
14	Propamocarb	Carbamates

Source: (Agrios, 2005; FRAC, 2023b; Romanazzi et al., 2022).

Table 4. Vineyard pesticides and their MRLs by codex alimentarius commission

S/no	Pesticide	MRL	Year of adoption
1	Abamectin	0.03 mg/Kg	2009
2	Acetamiprid	0.5 mg/Kg	2012
3	Azoxystrobin	2 mg/Kg	2009
4	Captan	25 mg/Kg	2008
5	Carbendazim	3 mg/Kg	2008
6	Chlormequat	0.04 mg/Kg	2018
7	Chlorothalonil	3 mg/Kg	2011
8	Chlorpyrifos-Methyl	1 mg/Kg	2010
9	Clyclaniliprole	0.6 mg/Kg	2021
10	Cypermethrins (including alpha- and zeta- cypermethrin)	0.2 mg/Kg	2009
11	Cyprodinil	3 mg/Kg	2005
12	Deltamethrin	0.2 mg/Kg	2004
13	Difenoconazole	3 mg/Kg	2014
14	Emamectin benzoate	0.03 mg/Kg	2012
15	Fluazifop-p-butyl	0.01 mg/Kg	2017
16	Fosetyl Al	60 mg/Kg	2018
17	Imidacloprid	1 mg/Kg	2004
18	Indoxacarb	2 mg/Kg	2006
19	Manderstrobin	5 mg/Kg	2021
20	Metaflumizone	5 mg/Kg	2021
21	Metalaxyl	1.5 mg/Kg	2022
22	Pendimethalin	0.05 mg/Kg	2022
23	Pyraziflumid	3 mg/Kg	2022
24	Tebuconazole	6 mg/Kg	2012
25	Triadimefon	0.3 mg/Kg	2015
26	Triadimenol	0.3 mg/Kg	2015

Source(FAO, 2023).

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Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.