The potential of Strychnos spp L. Utilization in Food Insecurity Alleviation: A review

Figures & data

Figure 1. The above images are (A) S. spinosa, (B) S. madagascariensis, (C) S. pungens, (D) S. cocculoides,^[21,22] (E) S. gerrardii, (F) S. innocua,^[21,23] (G) S. nux-vomica^[24] and (H) S. decussata.

Figure 1. Continued

Figure 2. The image above shows the color changes occurring in S. madagascariensis fruits during ripening of mature fruit.

Table 1. Color changes that occur during the ripening of Strychnos spp.

	Common name	Immature fruit color	Mature ripe fruit color	Fruit pulp at maturity	References
S. madagascariensis Poir.	Black monkey orange	Pale green-blue	Yellow	Orange	^[Citation35]
S. spinosa Lam.	Green monkey orange	Bright green	Initially yellow, then brown/black	White – yellow – dark brown. Fruit falls off the tree when mature.	^[Citation16]
S. pungens Soler.	Spiny-leafed monkey orange	Bluish-green	Yellow	Pale yellow. Fruit falls from tree when ripe.	^[Citation16]
S. cocculoides Baker.	Corky-bark monkey orange	Green	Orange	Yellow-brownish. Fruit falls from tree before ripening.	^[Citation16]
S. mittis S. Moore	Yellow bitterberry	Green	Yellow-orange	-	^[Citation20]
S. potatorum Linn	Black bitterberry	Green	Blue-black	Whitish	^[Citation20]
S. decussata (Pappe) Gilg	Cape-teak	Green	Orange-red	-	^[Citation20]
S. gerrardii N.E.Br.	Coastal monkey orange	Green	Orange-yellow	Orange	^[Citation20]
S. henningsii Gilg	Red bitterberry	Yellow-orange	Purple-black	-	^[Citation20]
S. usambarensis	Blue bitterberry	Bluish-green	Yellow-orange	-	^[Citation20]

Table 2. Nutritional values of Strychnos spp. fruit. Values are calculated based on 100 g DW of fruit.

Species	Plant part	Ash (%)	Crude protein (%)	Fat (%)	Fiber (%)	Total carbohydrate (%)	Energy (kJ/100 g)	Minerals (mg/g)									Vitamin (mg/100 g)	References
								P	Ca	Mg	Fe	K	Na	Cu	Mn	Zn	Vit. C
Strychnos spinosa	Fruit pulp	4.1 − 4.6	3.3–11.7	1.9 − 31.2	16.7–24.0	42.1–59.8	1923	0.66–1.68	0.15–1.3	0.43–1.41	0.00–0.14	1.37–19.68	0.02–0.25	0.00	0.03	0.00–0.01	880	^[Citation12,Citation30]
Strychnos innocua	Fruit pulp	0.5 − 3.7	4.0–11.5	6.0–20.0	17.9	61.0–75.5	1390–2084	2.11–2.60	0.06–6.67	1.63–10.67	0.06–9.77	28.67–256.33	0.46–153.33	2.37	2.50	28.73	*18	^[Citation31,Citation32]
Strychnos madagascariensis	Seeds	-	8.3	1.0	53.0	89.9	791	94.20	148.03	79.25	15.78	594.36	16.45	0.72	9.86	1.36	-	^[Citation33]

Table 3. Food products developed from popular Strychnos spp.

Species name	Plant part	Processing	Food product	References
S. madagascariensis	Fruit pulp	Eaten raw Pounded and sundried	Snack Flavoring in porridge, jams, juices, fruit roles, wine and beer	^[Citation32,Citation35–37]
	Seeds	Roasted on an open fire	Sweet treats
	Root, bark and leaves	Crushed and mixed with cold water	Tea (for the treatment of diarrhoea)
S. spinosa	Fruit pulp	Eaten raw Sundried	Snack Food preserve (jams, jellies, juices, fruit roles, powders, wine, beer, fritters and muffins)	^[Citation12,Citation22]
S. pungens	Fruit pulp	Eaten raw	Snack	^[Citation38,Citation39]
S. cocculoides	Fruit pulp	Eaten raw Juiced	Snack Fruit juice, Porridge supplement	^[Citation34,Citation38,Citation40,Citation41]
S. innocua	Fruit pulp	Eaten raw	Snack	^[Citation32]

Table 4. A summary of the distribution, habitat, uses and poisonous components in popular Strychnos species.

Species	Common name	Distribution	Habitat	Uses	Possible medicinal uses	Poisonous components	References
S. madagascariensis Poir.	Black Monkey Orange	Botswana, South Africa (Limpopo, North-west, Mpumulanga, KwaZulu-Natal), Eswatini	Savanna	Edible fruits, edible oils made from seed coat,	Seed coat and fruit pulp possess anti-diabetic properties. Root used to treat sore eyes	Seeds and unripe fruit are believed to be poisonous	^[Citation18,Citation21,Citation28,Citation33,Citation35,Citation38,Citation42–45]
S. cocculoides Bak.	Corky-bark Monkey Orange.	Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, northern Namibia, Angola, Tanzania, Mozambique, Kenya	Savanna	Edible fruits	Roots are used for abdominal pains and to treat gonorrhea, it is also used as an aphrodisiac	Seeds and bark are poisonous	^[Citation18,Citation22,Citation38]
S. spinosa Lam.	Spiny or Green Monkey Orange	South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal), Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia	Savanna	Wood may be used for general carpentry, Leaves used as fodder.	leaves; roots; bark and fruit (seeds) are used medicinally for the treatment of snake bites, abdominal pains and gonorrhea	Seeds, bark and unripe fruit contain strychnine	^[Citation18,Citation22,Citation46,Citation47]
S. decussata (Pappe) Gilg	Cape teak	South Africa (Eastern Cape, Knysna, KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng)	Costal forest	No documented edible uses	Roots, leaves and bark are used medicinally for stomach ailments	Unripe fruits and bark are poisonous	^[Citation18,Citation48]
S. nux-vomica L.	Strychnine tree, poison nut	United States, European Union, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, North Australia, Taiwan, Asia	Forest	Production of rodenticides	Dried seeds used to treat neurodisorders, arthritis and vomiting	Seeds and unripe fruit	^[Citation49–52]
S. potatorum L.f.	Clearing nut tree	India, Sri Lanka, Burma	Wet forest	Seeds, may be used in the treatment of wastewater, Fruits used as fish poison	Leaves, roots, bark and seeds are used as traditional medicine to treat various ailments	Unripe fruits	^[Citation18,Citation27,Citation53,Citation54]
S. gerrardii N.E.Br.	Coastal monkey orange	KwaZulu-Natal	Coastal and dune forest	Edible fruits	No documented medicinal uses	Not documented	^[Citation20]

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