Chemical Indicators of Atlantic Salmon Quality

Figures & data

Figure 1. 2020 production data of the ten most farmed fish globally.^[11]

Table 1. Farmed Atlantic salmon production by nation. Values in per 1000 tons live weight.^[11]

	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020
Norway	1303	1234	1236	1282	1364	1388
Chile	608	532	614	661	701	787
United Kingdom	172	163	190	156	204	193
Canada	93	91	86	87	89	92
Faroe Islands	81	83	87	79	95	89
Australia	48	56	53	61	57	67
Iceland	3	8	11	13	27	34
Canada	29	33	35	36	30	29
United States	19	16	15	16	16	16
Ireland	13	16	18	12	11	13

Table 2. Fatty acid composition as percentage of total fatty acid in Atlantic salmon from different farming sources.^[36,37].

Fatty acid	Wild salmon	Farmed salmon
Lauric acid (12:0)	0.05 ± 0.01	Not detected
Myristic acid (14:0)	3.43 ± 0.49	1.71 ± 0.42
Palmitic acid (16:0)	17.43 ± 2.18	9.61 ± 2.22
Stearic acid (18:0)	4.31 ± 0.56	2.94 ± 0.75
Arachidic acid (20:0)	0.08 ± 0.01	0.29 ± 0.08
Total SUFA	26.32 ± 3.38	14.98 ± 3.55
Palmitoleic acid (16:1)	6.39 ± 1.26	2.57 ± 0.66
Oleic acid (18:1n9)	17.14 ± 2.24	44.0 ± 11.1
Gadoleic acid (20:1)	8.05 ± 1.76	3.43 ± 1.13
Erucic acid (22:1n9)	8.85 ± 2.24	1.46 ± 0.73
Total MUFA	47.40 ± 8.36	55.4 ± 14.7
Linoleic acid (18:2n6)	0.84 ± 0.14	13.83 ± 3.33
α-Linoleic acid (ALA) (18:3n3)	Not detected	0.06 ± 0.02
Stearidoic acid (18:4n3)	0.86 ± 0.03	0.43 ± 0.10
Linoleic acid (20:2n6)	0.21 ± 0.06	0.84 ± 0.22
Eicosatrienoic acid (20:3n3)	0.15 ± 0.04	0.34 ± 0.07
Eicosatetraenoic acid (20:4n3)	1.10 ± 0.17	0.59 ± 0.18
Arachidonic acid (20:4n6)	0.26 ± 0.05	0.13 ± 0.03
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (20:5n3)	6.11 ± 1.13	2.19 ± 0.43
Docossapentaenoic acid (22:5n3)	0.30 ± 0.08	0.22 ± 0.05
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (22:6n3)	12.94 ± 3.36	3.94 ± 0.81
Total polyunsaturated fatty acids	26.29 ± 5.30	29.63 ± 6.66
Omega-6/Omega-3	0.06	1.04

Table 3. Summary of feeding trials and their effect on polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Lipid source	Diet/environment parameters	Result		Findings	Reference
RO, FO	Five different diets differing in ratios of rapeseed oil to fish oil were feed to groups of fish over a 17-week period.	3.7 ± 0.2 g/100 g n-6 27.7 ± 2.8 g/100 g n-3	0% RO, 100% FO	All FA values are displayed as g/100 g of total FA. Diets that were higher than 50% RO resulted in significant decreases in n-3 FA and increases in n-6 FA.	^[Citation42]
		5.8 ± 0.3 g/100 g n-6 22.0 ± 2.0 g/100 g n-3	10% RO, 90% FO
		7.5 ± 0.1 g/100 g n-6 23.5 ± 2.7 g/100 g n-3	25% RO, 75% FO
		9.6 ± 0.2 g/100 g n-6 23.9 ± 0.9 g/100 g n-3	50% RO, 50% FO
		14.6 ± 0.2 g/100 g n-6 18.4 ± 0.8 g/100 g n-3	100% RO, 0% FO
PO, FO	Fish fed one of four diets with different ratios of palm oil to fish oil for 30 weeks.	4.8 ± 0.2 g/100 g n-6 29.5 ± 2.7 g/100 g n-3	0% PO, 100% FO	All FA values are displayed as g/100 g of total FA. n-3 FA decrease significantly as FO ratio decreases in diet.	^[Citation43]
		33.1 ± 2.1 g/100 g POLY 6.2 ± 0.3 g/100 g n-6 26.2 ± 2.0 g/100 g n-3	25% PO, 75% FO
		31.9 ± 3.1 g/100 g POLY 7.4 ± 0.7 g/100 g n-6 23.9 ± 3.4 g/100 g n-3	50% PO, 50% FO
		24.4 ± 2.1 g/100 g POLY 12.7 ± 0.5 g/100 g n-6 11.5 ± 1.9 g/100 g n-3	100% PO, 0% FO
VO, FO	Fish were fed different diets containing either FO, VO, or a combination of both, until reaching harvest weight, where there switched to a finishing diet of 100% FO.	3.9 ± 0.2% n-6 23.9 ± 0.3% n-3	100% FO	All FA values are displayed as a percentage of total FA. n-3 FA levels are lower in fish fed lower amount of FO, although finishing diet brought all n-3 levels to comparable levels. However, the n-3/n-6 ratio is much lower with VO oil diets.	^[Citation44]
		6.9 ± 0.2% n-6 20.5 ± 0.7% n-3	75% VO, 25% FO
		9.8 ± 0.8% n-6 20.3 ± 0.5% n-3	100% VO
FO, SO, RO,	Fish were fed one of five different diets for 10 weeks that were a different combination of VO (RO & SO), or FO sourced from northern and southern hemisphere fish and decontaminated sources.	7.3 ± 0.3% n-6 26.6 ± 1.2% n-3	FO	All FA values are displayed as a percentage of total FA. Small, significant differences in certain FA between FO and decontaminated FO. n-3 decrease with lower amounts of FO.	^[Citation45]
		7.7 ± 1.0% n-6 28.0 ± 1.0% n-3	Decontaminated FO
		13.8 ± 0.5% n-6 20.0 ± 1.4% n-3	Southern FO/RO
		23.0 ± 0.6% n-6 20.0 ± 0.3% n-3	Southern FO/RO/SO
		30.5 ± 1.2% n-6 19.8 ± 0.8% n-3	Southern FO/SO
FM	Four diets where the level of fish meal differed in varying amounts were fed to fish over 19 weeks. PP were used to balance out protein amount for each diet. Lipids supplied as 40:60 FO:RO for all diets.	14.1 ± 0.4% n-6 16.4 ± 1.3% n-3	FM 25%	All FA values are displayed as a percentage of total FA. n-3 overall unaffected, though lower amounts of FM resulted in reduced palatability of the feed.	^[Citation46]
		14.5 ± 0.4% n-6 17.7 ± 1.9% n-3	FM 18%
		13.9 ± 0.6% n-6 18.6 ± 1.7% n-3	FM 11%
		13.4 ± 0.4% n-6 18.1 ± 2.2% n-3	FM 5%
PP, FM, VO, FO	Three different experimental diets and one control diet were fed to fish for 12 months. Control diet was FM-FO, while the experimental diets replaced differing amounts of FM and FO with different percentages of PP and VO. Two finishing diets were implemented at 8 months, where some fish from the FMFO and 80PP70VP groups swapped diets for the remaining months of the trial.	3 ± 0 mg/g n-6 30 ± 2 mg/g n-3	FMFO	All FA values taken from the fillet. Fish fed high amounts of PPVO had net production of DHA, while fish fed FMFO had net loss by end of trial. Fish on FD2 show an increase of n-3 compared to other fish not given the FMFO finishing diet.	^[Citation32]
		12 ± 0 mg/g n-6 26 ± 1 mg/g n-3	80PP35VO
		16 ± 1 mg/g n-6 24 ± 2 mg/g n-3	40PP70VO
		14 ± 1 mg/g n-6 21 ± 2 mg/g n-3	80PP70VO
		8 ± 1 mg/g n-6 26 ± 1 mg/g n-3	FD1 – FMFO to 80PP70VO
		8 ± 0 mg/g n-6 22 ± 2 mg/g n-3	FD2 - 80PP70VO to FMFO
RO, FO, EO	Three experimental diets with differing lipid sources were feed to fish for 196 days.	56.7 ± 2.4 mg/g n-6 68.0 ± 3.3 mg/g n-3	EO	All values are taken from whole carcass. Significant differences between total n-3 between each feed treatment. However, FO diet contains significantly higher LCn-3 FA than both diets, EO diet contain more LCn-3 FA than RO diets.	^[Citation47]
		12.9 ± 2.4 mg/g n-6 56.1 ± 2.5 mg/g n-3	FO
		48.7 ± 0.6 mg/g n-6 22.5 ± 0.5 mg/g n-3	RO
FO, VO	Experimental diets with increasing levels of DHA and EPA were given to fish, beginning at the seawater phase (~1450 g BW). Trial lasted until fish reached 3500 g, 151 days.	16.7% n-6 14.8% n-3	DHA+EPA 1.3%	All values taken as a percentage of total FA. Optimal growth found to be with feed > 2.7% DHA+EPA. Adult fish in seawater will net produce LCn-3 when dietary level drop below optimal amounts.	^[Citation40]
		16.0% n-6 15.4% n-3	DHA+EPA 2.7%
		15.1% n-6 15.8% n-3	DHA+EPA 4.4%
		14.2% n-6 18.0% n-3	DHA+EPA 7.4%
FM, ABP, VP	Seven experimental diets with protein from varying sources. Three diets varied the LCn-3 levels. Trial lasted 14 weeks.	6.16 ± 4.15 mg/g POLY 4.28 ± 2.54 mg/g n-3	FM − 35%	All values taken from muscle tissue. Use of ABP and VO resulted significantly different FA profile compared with FM diets. Low concentrated LCn-3 diets yielded net production of LCn-3, comparable to FM diets.	^[Citation41]
		3.06 ± 1.54 mg/g POLY 2.03 ± 0.83 mg/g n-3	FM − 15%
		6.16 ± 4.15 mg/g POLY 2.07 ± 0.76 mg/g n-3	ABP
		4.26 ± 1.50 mg/g POLY 2.65 ± 0.73 mg/g n-3	VP
		3.34 ± 1.89 mg/g POLY 2.02 ± 1.10 mg/g n-3	LCn-3–0%
		5.28 ± 2.91 mg/g POLY 3.08 ± 1.49 mg/g n-3	LCn-3–1%
		5.20 ± 3.16 mg/g POLY 3.21 ± 1.59 mg/g n-3	LCn-3–1.4%
CO	Inclusion of high concentration long chain n-3 fatty acid (ALA) canola oil included in diet any varying levels (standard, medium and high) over 12 months.	15.4 ± 0.02% n-6 15.4 ± 0.02% n-3	Standard	All values taken from muscle tissue. High amounts n-3 CO improves DHA and other n-3 content significantly.	^[Citation48]
		12.5 ± 0.07% n-6 23.5 ± 0.11% n-3	Medium
		10.7 ± 0.00% n-6 27.4 ± 0.01% n-3	High

All values taken at end of referenced trial unless otherwise stated.

RO = rapeseed oil, PO = palm oil, VO= vegetable oil, SO = soybean oil, FO = fish oil, EO = echium oil, CO = canola oil, FM = fish meal, PP = plant protein ABP = animal by-product, VP = vegetable protein, Ax = astaxanthin, SAT = saturated fatty acids, MONO = monounsaturated fatty acids, POLY = polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-6 = omega 6 fatty acid, n-3 = omega-3 fatty acids, LCn-3 = long chain omega-3 fatty acids, FW = Freshwater.

Figure 2. Chemical structures of common carotenoids^[60].

Figure 3. Optical isomers of astaxanthin (Brotosduarmo et al, 2020).

Figure 4. Common geometric isomers of astaxanthin (Brotosdarmo et al, 2020).

Table 4. Summary of feeding trials and their effect on Atlantic salmon pigmentation.

Carotenoid	Diet/environment parameters	Results		Findings	Reference
Ax	Three diets at different Ax concentrations: 40, 70, 100 mg/kg Ax over a 40-week period.	Roche colour card score 3.02 ± 0.20 3.85 ± 0.09 3.57 ± 0.14	Ax 40 mg/kg	Feed containing 70 and 100 mg/kg Ax produced a significantly higher colour scores than the feed containing 40 mg/kg Ax. There was no significant difference in colour score between 70 and 100 mg/kg Ax.	^[Citation53]
			Ax 70 mg/kg
			Ax 100 mg/kg
Ax	Two feed types, with Ax (Diet 1) and without Ax (Diet 2), were fed to fish in alternating meals in six different repetition patterns for 168 days.	2.8 ± 0.4 mg/kg Ax in muscle 43.0 ± 0.5 L* 7.1 ± 0.2 a* 11.2 ± 0.2 b*	1:1	The control diet produced fish with the most Ax in flesh and highest color values.	^[Citation52]
		2.6 ± 0.3 mg/kg Ax in muscle 42.6 ± 1.5 L* 6.7 ± 0.03 a* 10.8 ± 0.0 b*	2:2
		2.1 ± 0.08 mg/kg Ax in muscle 44.6 ± 0.3 L* 6.1 ± 0.01 a* 10.6 ± 0.02 b*	4:4
		2.4 ± 0.03 mg/kg Ax in muscle 43.4 ± 0.2 L* 7.0 ± 0.02 a* 11.21 ± 0.1 b*	8:8
		2.7 ± 0.20 mg/kg Ax in muscle 43.0 ± 0.5 L* 7.0 ± 0.20 a* 11.2 ± 0.4 b*	Mixture of diet 1 & 2
		3.1 ± 0.20 mg/kg Ax in muscle 41.9 ± 1.0 L* 7.8 ± 1.0 a* 12.0 ± 1.6 b*	Control (all diet 1)
Ax, Cx	Fish fed diets consisting of single carotenoid and varying combinations of both. Pigmentation examined when fish reached 800 g.	2.8 mg/kg flesh pigmentation 62.98 L* 9.57 a* 7.71 b* 7.57% deposition efficiency	100% Cx diet	Fish fed with combination diets showed decreases in flesh pigmentation, redness (a*) and deposition efficiency with increased levels of Ax.	^[Citation64]
		2.5 mg/kg flesh pigmentation 63.91 L* 8.38 a* 6.53 b* 5.71% deposition efficiency	100% Ax diet
Ax, Cx	Fish fed diets consisting of single carotenoid and varying combinations of both Ax and Cx over 25 weeks. Pigmentation examined on 400 g fish.	3.83 ± 0.14 mg/kg total pigment 41.1 ± 0.8 L* 6.4 ± 0.3 a* 11.1 ± 0.6 b* 31.2 salmofan score	71 mg Cx diet	All values taken at end of trial. Fish fed with combination diets showed decreases in flesh pigmentation and redness (a*) Results from only the single carotenoid diets are shown.	^[Citation65]
		2.75 ± 0.24 mg/kg total pigment 41.8 ± 1.0 L* 5.5 a* 8.0 ± 0.5 b* 29.0 salmofan score	45 mg Ax diet
Ax, Cx	Fish transferred to seawater as either 0+ or 1+ smolts. Fed equal amounts of Ax and Cx over 35 weeks.	5.8 ± 0.4 mg/kg total flesh carotenoids 38.3 ± 0.8% Cx, 60.4 ± 0.8% Ax	0+ smolt	Time of seawater transfer significantly effects carotenoid levels in muscle, with + 0 smolts having higher levels of carotenoid deposition.	^[Citation66]
		4.6 ± 0.4 mg/kg total flesh carotenoids 39.9 ± 0.5% Cx, 58.7 ± 0.6% Ax	1+ smolt
Ax	Fish meal was replaced with either wheat, pea, or corn in low (LE), medium (ME) and high (HE) energy formulations, creating 9 experimental diets. All diets contain the same amount of Ax. Fed to fish through their marine development stage	5.7 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Corn – LE	Pigmentation effected much more strongly by energy level (lipid content) rather than by carbohydrate source.	^[Citation67]
		5.1 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Corn – ME
		6.4 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Corn – HE
		5.6 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Pea – LE
		5.9 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Pea – ME
		6.5 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Pea – HE
		5.4 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Wheat – LE
		6.0 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Wheat – ME
		6.3 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Wheat – HE
Ax	Diets of varying amount of lutein (0, 11 and 23 mg/kg) with consistent amounts Ax (55 mg/kg) were fed to fish over 138 days.	3.94 mg/kg Ax in muscle 3.56% deposition efficiency	0 mg/kg lutein diet	No significant difference in muscle Ax concentration with increasing lutein concentration in the diet. Weak, non-significant differences in Ax deposition efficiency with increasing lutein concentration in the diet.	^[Citation68]
		3.96 mg/kg Ax in muscle 3.75% deposition efficiency	11 mg/kg lutein diet
		3.75 mg/kg Ax in muscle 3.57% deposition efficiency	23 mg/kg lutein diet
Ax	Fish fed diets with synthetic Ax or red yeast Phaffia rhodozyma over 86 days	2.09 mg/kg Ax in muscle 7.19% deposition efficiency	P. rhodozyma diet	Synthetic Ax produced a lower amount of pigmentation compared with	^[Citation69]
		1.42 mg/kg Ax in muscle 4.44% deposition efficiency	Synthetic Ax diet
Ax	Diets with synthetic Ax and Ax from Calanus oil at two different levels (20 and 60 mg/kg) are compared were fed to fish over 181 days.	1.2 mg/kg Ax in muscle 3.1 ± 0.7 a*	Ax-20	Significant differences between all feed types. Synthetic Ax produces higher deposition in muscle and a × .	^[Citation70]
		1.9 mg/kg Ax in muscle 5.5 ± 1.0 a*	Ax-60
		0.45 mg/kg Ax in muscle 0.1 ± 0.4 a*	Cal-20
		0.95 mg/kg Ax in muscle 2.6 ± 0.9 a*	Cal-60
Ax	High and low energy diets where fed to fish until they reached 2.4 kg in weight. At this point, a feeding regime of being fed to satiation or at a reduced level was implemented. This regime continued until fish reached 4.0 kg in weight.	40.8 ± 0.2 L* 6.4 ± 0.2 a* 14.3 ± 0.2 b* 26.4 ± 0.3 salmofan score 5.53 ± 0.17 mg/kg Ax in muscle	High energy – satiation	Significant differences for a*, b* values and pigment concentration between high and low energy diets.	^[Citation71]
		40.8 ± 0.1 L* 6.2 ± 0.1 a* 14.9 ± 0.2 b* 26.8 ± 0.2 salmofan score 5.71 ± 0.13 mg/kg Ax in muscle	High energy – reduced
		39.6 ± 0.2 L* 5.7 ± 0.1 a* 13.4 ± 0.2 b* 26.8 ± 0.2 salmofan score 5.38 ± 0.11 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Low energy – satiation
		39.9 ± 0.4 L* 5.6 ± 0.1 a* 14.1 ± 0.3 b* 26.8 ± 0.3 salmofan score 5.67 ± 0.20 mg/kg Ax in muscle	Low energy – reduced
Ax	0+ and 1+ smolts were fed a reduced frequency diet, one meal per second day during < 5°C temperature to one meal per day during > 5°C temperature. Control groups fed one to three meals per day. Trial started at fish weight 40 g and concluded at 4300 g.	40.7 ± 0.9 L* 6.2 ± 0.7 a* 15.1 ± 1.2 b* 24.4 ± 0.7 salmofan score 7.0 ± 0.6 mg/kg Pigment in muscle	0+ Control	Significant differences for a*, b* values and pigment concentration between 0+ and 1+ control groups. All values taken at end of trial.	^[Citation72]
		40.4 ± 1.3 L* 6.1 ± 0.1 a* 14.7 ± 1.2 b* 26.4 ± 0.7 salmofan score 7.2 ± 0.6 mg/kg Pigment in muscle	0+ Treatment
		39.3 ± 1.2 L* 5.8 ± 0.7 a* 14.1 ± 1.0 b* 26.3 ± 7.0 salmofan score 6.7 ± 0.6 mg/kg Pigment in muscle	1+ Control
		39.0 ± 1.2 L* 5.8 ± 0.6 a* 14.0 ± 0.9 b* 26.3 ± 0.8 salmofan score 6.6 ± 0.6 mg/kg Pigment in muscle	1+ Treatment
Ax	Experimental diets with differing amounts of fish bone hydrolysate (FBH) as the phosphorus source were fed to fish for 78 days. K2SO4 was added to test effects of KOH on pH adjustment. All diets contained the same amount of Ax.	2.56 ± 0.14 mg/kg Ax in muscle 4.62 ± 0.18% deposition efficiency	Control (CaPO4)	Significant difference between all values.	^[Citation73]
		2.20 ± 0.59 mg/kg Ax in muscle 3.87 ± 1.16% deposition efficiency	FBH 2.1%
		3.46 ± 0.28 mg/kg Ax in muscle 6.24 ± 0.69% deposition efficiency	FBH 4.2%
		2.77 ± 0.60 mg/kg Ax in muscle 4.44 ± 0.72% deposition efficiency	K2SO4
Ax	Inclusion of high concentration long chain n-3 fatty acid canola oil included in diet any varying levels (standard, medium and high) over 12 months. All diets contained approximately equal amounts of Ax.	5.3 ± 0.4 mg/kg Ax in muscle 11.0 ± 0.3 a* 6.6 ± 0.7% deposition efficiency	Standard	All values taken at end of trial. No significant differences in Ax concentration, though a* values differ significantly.	^[Citation48]
		5.9 ± 0.5 mg/kg Ax in muscle 12.7 ± 0.4 a* 7.6 ± 0.7% deposition efficiency	Medium
		5.4 ± 0.3 mg/kg Ax in muscle 12.2 ± 0.4 a* 7.0 ± 0.5% deposition efficiency	High
Ax	Four diets consisting of 1.0, 1.3, 1.6 and 3.5% EPA and DHA where fed to fish until they reached 5 kg.	3.9 ± 0.37 mg/kg Ax in muscle 23.6 salmofan score	1.0% EPA + DHA	All values taken at end of trial. No significant differences in Ax concentration. Significant differences between salmofan scores.	^[Citation74]
		4.8 ± 0.65 mg/kg Ax in muscle 24.0 ± 0.12 mg/kg Ax in muscle	1.3% EPA + DHA
		4.4 ± 0.17 mg/kg Ax in muscle 24.3 ± 0.14 salmofan score	1.6% EPA + DHA
		4.6 ± 0.32 mg/kg Ax in muscle 25.0 ± 011 salmofan score	3.5% EPA + DHA

All values taken at end of trial unless otherwise stated.

Ax = astaxanthin, Cx = canthaxanthin.

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