A Review on Bacterial Resistance to Carbapenems: epidemiology, Detection and Treatment Options

Figures & data

Figure 1. Carbapenem backbone structure.

Figure 2. The chemical structure of thienamycin.

Figure 3. Chemical structure of imipenem.

Figure 4. Chemical structure of meropenem.

Figure 5. Chemical structure of ertapenem.

Table 1. Primers sequences, PCR product sizes and annealing temperatures of carbapenemase genes.

Gene	Forward primer (5′ → 3′)	Reverse primer (5′ → 3′)	Expected product size (bp)	Ta (°C)	Ref.
bla KPC	TGTCACTGTATCGCCGTC	CTCAGTGCTCTACAGAAAACC	900	58	[63,103,104]
	CGTCTAGTTCTGCTGTCTTG	CTTGTCATCCTTGTTAGGCG	798	52	[28,105]
	CTGTCTTGTCTCTCATGGCC	CCTCGCTGTGCTTGTCATCC	796	53	[47]
bla IMP	CTACCGCAGCAGAGTCTTTG	AACCAGTTTTGCCTTACCAT	587	55	[104,106]
	GAAGGCGTTTATGTTCATAC	GTACGTTTCAAGAGTGATGC	587	60	[103]
	GGAATAGAGTGGCTTAAYTC ^†	TCGGTTTAAYAAAACAACCACC ^†	232	52	[28,105]
bla VIM	TCTACATGACCGCGTCTGTC	TGTGCTTTGACAACGTTCGC	748	50	[107]
	GTTTGGTCGCATATCGCAAC	AATGCGCAGCACCAGGATAG	389	60	[103]
	AGTGGTGAGTATCCGACAG	ATGAAAGTGCGTGGAGAC	261	52	[104,108]
	GATGGTGTTTGGTCGCATA	CGAATGCGCAGCACCAG	390	52	[28,105]
bla NDM	GGTTTGGCGATCTGGTTTTC	CGGAATGGCTCATCACGAT	621	50	[105,109]
	GCAGCTTGTCGGCCATGCGGGC	GGTCGCGAAGCTGAGCACCGCAT	782	60	[103]
	CAGCGCAGCTTGTCG	TCGCGAAGCTGAGCA	784	52	[110]
bla OXA-48	GCGTGGTTAAGGATGAACAC	CATCAAGTTCAACCCAACCG	438	52	[28,103,105]
	TTGGTGGCATCGATTATCGG	GAGCACTTCTTTTGTGATGGC	743	56	[111,112]

bla _KPC. bla _IMP. bla _VIM. bla _NDM and bla _OXA-48 genes code for KPC, IMP, VIM, NDM and OXA-48 carbapenemases, respectively.

† Y stands for C or T.

IMP: Imipenemase or imipenem-resistant Pseudomonas-type carbapenemases, class B; KPC: Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemases; NDM: New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase; Ta: Annealing temperature; VIM: Veronese imipenemase.

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