Green biologically synthesized metal nanoparticles: biological applications, optimizations and future prospects

Figures & data

Figure 1. Different forms of nanomedicine and their biological applications.

Figure 2. Advantages of green synthesis of metal nanoparticles.

MNP: Metal nanoparticle.

Table 1. Common methods for synthesizing green, physical and chemical metal nanoparticles, along with their benefits and drawbacks.

MNP synthesis method	Basic principle	Applications	Advantages	Disadvantages	Ref.
Chemical methods
Bottom up chemical methods
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)	A chemical reaction taking place either on or near a heated substrate which results in solid compound depositions from vapor The deposited substance might be a single crystal, thin film or both	Carbon-encapsulated cobalt (Co@C) NPs (excellent ferromagnetic properties) CdSSe nano-flowers (CdSSe NFs) (Surface-enhanced Raman scattering substrate for antibiotics detections)	• Synthesis of coatings with consistent thickness and low porosity • Allow selective or local deposition of material on patterned substrates.	• Relatively high temperature of gases and substrate to facilitate the deposition (hazardous and energy consuming) • Long cycle time (long heating and cooling periods)	[^48-50]
Langmuir–Blodgett technique	Generation of supra-molecular assemblies in ultrathin films	Gold and silver nanoparticles (AuNPs and AgNPs)	Creation of well-ordered mono and multi layered molecular structures	• Long deposition times • low reproducibility	[51,52]
Spray Pyrolysis	It involves a heated substrate, an atomizer and metal precursor solution Generation of MNPs thin films due to atomization of precursor solution	High entropy Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu and Fe oxide NPs	• Simple process • Cost effective • Continuous operation with high yield.	• Yield is relatively low • Difficult optimization procedures	[^53-55]
Sol-gel method	Heating metal alkoxide solution until it reaches gel consistency followed by appropriate drying technique	SiO2-NP nano-carriers in in drug/gene target delivery and imaging diagnosis	• High purity • Narrow NPs particle size • Uniform nanostructure distributions	• Cost of the raw chemicals is high • Volume shrinkage and gel cracking have been reported while drying	[56,57]
Solvo-thermal method	Both non-aqueous solvent and precursor substances are heated (>boiling point) within a closed system	ZnO-NPs with ammonia sensing capabilities	High temperature and pressure facilitate the solvation of any substance	• Usage of non-environmentally safe and toxic solvents • Discontinuity of the process due to prolonged reaction times, and uneven heating to obtain desired material.	[58,59]
Co-precipitation method	Simultaneous precipitation of hydroxide form of MNPs from precursor salt in the proper solvent. The oxide MNP is obtained by drying. Multistage process involves nucleation, growth, coarsening, agglomeration and ripening.	Zinc ferrite nanoparticles, ZFO NPs (prominent cytotoxic activities)	• Most practical, affordable method for synthesis of MNPs • Mono-dispersed NP.	Continuous washing, drying is perquisite to obtain metal NPs	[60,61]
Micro-emulsion method	When two non-nucleated micelles collide, the entire solute is transferred to one micelle	Magnetic Fe3O4@polydopamine core-shell NPs (Fe3O4@PDA) for targeted chemotherapy	• High efficacy • Affordability • High purity • High efficiency • Easy optimization	Small linear range of nanoparticles near micromolar doses, necessitating sample pre-dilution	[62,63]
Top-down chemical methods
Metal Assisted Chemical Etching (MACE)	Semiconductors (silicon) are chemically etched with the help of a metal catalyst	Gold nanoparticles	High surface contrast	• High chemical disposal costs • Poor process control (temperature sensitivity) • Weak anisotropy and poor particle size control	[64,65]
Physical methods
Top-down physical methods of synthesis
Laser Ablation (LASiS)	Laser irradiation of liquid submerged target	Biocompatible AgNPs	• Considered green technology (low costs) • A powerful means of cleaning surface without the use of any chemicals.	• Hazardous emissions due to laser vaporization and substance combustion (necessitate reliable exhaust system) • Lasers beams may inflect serious fire and health risks.	[66,67]
Sputtering	Bombardment of target material with intense gas or gaseous plasma ions, resulting in formation of small particles of the target material emission.	Pt/Ag solid solution alloy NPs (<3 nm)	• Existence of reactive plasma with high oxidizing potential. • Relatively low cost	The bombardment's target area is relatively low, and the average deposition rate is poor.	[68,69]
Mechanical milling	Factors such as milling method (ball or attrition miller), applied power, milling medium (such as tungsten carbide balls), control solution (such as toluene), mill speed and time all affect the properties of NPs	Al-5Al2O3 nanocomposites	High capacity to manufacture a wide range of NPs	• Noisy procedure • Relatively slow and exhausting • Soft fibrous material cannot be milled by ball mill.	[70,71]
Green synthesis
Plant	Different parts of plants, leaves, roots, seeds utilized for NPs synthesis	Au, Ag, TiO2, ZnO, Pt/Pd NPs (anticancer, antimicrobial, antibacterial, etc.)	• Low cost, less pollution, eco-friendly • Plants phytochemicals that may serve as organic stabilizing and/or reducing agents for MNPs • Less toxic MNPs with high biological potential.	• May not be suitable for large scale productions • Poly-dispersed MNPs of varying particle size • Further investigations are required to assess activities and properties of MNPs	[72]
Bacteria	Various bacterial sp. (Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus sp., Brevibacterium frigoritolerans)		• Environmentally benign and nontoxic synthesizing method. • Simple to manipulate and control the physical and chemical. • Generate metal nanoparticles that are highly stable and have less agglomeration propensity (attributed to capping of NPs by natural microbial proteins) • Mono-dispersed MNPs and any irregular sizes may be adjusted by strict control of physical parameters	• Cost of media and bacterial isolation and identification might be expensive • Long production time • Synthesis is highly dependent on physical parameters (pH, Temp, etc.) which necessitate optimization	[73,74]
Fungi	Various fungal sp. (Aspergillus sp. Colleotrichum sp. Rhizopus sp. Fusarium sp. Guignardia sp.)		• Excellent metal tolerance • Secretion of high conc. of extracellular proteins that cap and stabilize MNPs • Fungal cultures are more beneficial over bacterial system (strong biomass production) • Fungal mycelial mass is agitation and pressure resistant • Large-scale syntheses of MNPs and easy manipulation of metabolism to control production of MNP	Multistage downstream process for the retrieval of the NPs that might be expensive	[75]

Al: Aluminum; Au: Gold; Ag: Silver; Cu: Copper; MNP: Metal nanoparticle; NP: Nanoparticle; TiO₂: Titanium dioxide; ZnO: Zinc oxide.

Table 2. Metal nanoparticles synthesized by different plant extracts.

MNP	Producing organism	MNP characteristics	Requirement for production	Ref.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)	• Saccharum ofcinarum • Helianthus annus • Cinamomum camphora • Oryza sativa • Aloe vera • Capsicum annuum sativa • Magnolia Kobus • Hibiscus rosa sinensis	• Unique size-related physical and chemical characteristics. • Favorable optical characteristics • Favorable electrical and thermal conductivity • Favorable biological and catalytic activities	Plant extract co-incubated with silver metal ion solution (AgNO3)	[88,89]
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)	• Geranium leaf extract • Aloe vera leaf • Magnolia kobus leaf extracts • Cofea Arabica • Croton sparsiforus leaves extract	• AuNPs with excellent optical properties • Adjustable AuNP sizes by changing the gold precursor and plant extract concentrations.	Precursor salt solution (AuCl3) mixed with plant extracts	[77,^90-92]
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs)	• Flower and leaf of Vitex negundo • Hibiscus subdariffa leaf extract	• ZnO-NPs with high semiconducting properties • High enzymatic activity, wound healing, anti-inflammatory, and ultraviolet filtering properties. • ZnO-NPs with enhanced photocatalytic activity.	Mixing plant extract with a 0.5 mM of either hydrated zinc sulphate, zinc oxide, and zinc nitrate.	[93,94]
Pd/Pt nanoparticles	• Catharanthus roseus	• Pd and Pt NPs with high surface energy and high surface area to volume ratio, facilitating their action as catalysts • Low genotoxicity • High yield of Pd/Pt-NPs	Aqueous solution of palladium acetate mixed with methanolic extract of plant biomass.	[^95-97]

MNP: Metal nanoparticle.

Table 3. Characteristics and fabrication techniques for the most commonly synthesized bacterial metal nanoparticles.

MNPs	Secreting organisms	Size and shape	Advantageous properties	Fabrication technique	Ref.
Extracellular Ag-NPs	Metal resistant Bacillus sp. strain CS 11	Spherical shaped 42–92 nm	Highly stable Extracellular production within 24 h at room temperature	Co-incubation of bacterial cell filtrate with different concentrations of filter-sterilized AgNO3 (nitrate reductase aid in MNPs reduction)	[142]
	Thermophilic Bacillus sp. AZ1	Spherical shaped 7–13 nm	Small sized Ag-NPs are associated with higher biological activities		[143]
	Pathogenic Enterococcus aerogenes	Spherical shaped 47–105 nm	Synergistic effects when combined with antibacterial agents		[144]
	Bacillus subtilis Escherichia coli	Spherical shaped 123–323 nm	Stable for long periods		[145]
	Soil Cuprividus sp.	Spherical shaped 10–50 nm	Anti-biofilm activity		[146]
	Bacillus mojavensis BTCB15	Spherical shaped 105 nm	Antibacterial activity against MDRs	Introduction of Tween 20, and metal ion K2SO4, for Ag-NP size augmentation with 104% size reduction to 2.3 nm	[147]
Intracellular Ag-NPs	Lactobacillus casei	Spherical 25–50 nm or Aggregates 100 nm	–	Co-cultivation of bacterial biomass with electron donor (glucose, 56 mmol L^-1), and inducer (AgNO3, 0.1 mmol L^-1).	[148]
Extracellular Au-NPs	Cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya JSC-1 sp.	Spherical shaped 100–200 nm	Photo-catalytic activity with methylene blue and antibacterial vigor	Co-incubation of bacterial cell filtrate with hydrogen tetrachloroaurate solution (HAuCl4)	[149]
	Marine bacterium Lysinibacillus odysseyi PBCW2	Spherical shaped 15–35 nm	Relatively stable (∼6 months) Antioxidant Antibacterial Dye-degrading properties (BTB dye)		[150]
	Nocardiopsis sp. MBRC-48	Spherical shape 11.57 ± 1.24 nm	Antioxidant Cytotoxic/anticancer activity Antimicrobial activity Synergism with other antimicrobial agents	Co-incubation of bacterial filtrate with HAuCl4·3H2O	[151]
Intracellular AuNPs	Enterococcus sp. RMAA.	Spherical shape	Stable Pro-apoptotic agent/anticancer activity	Co-cultivation of bacterial biomass with AuCl3	[152]
Extracellular TiO2-NPs	Bacillus subtilis	Spherical (66–77 nm) Oval Aggregate (30–40 nm)	Anatase crystalline structure Stable Antibacterial activity	Co-incubation of bacterial cell filtrate with TiO(OH)2 solution	[153]
	lactobacillus sp.	Spherical aggregates of 40–60 nm	Eco-friendly, low cost Ti2O nanoparticles	Co-incubation of cell filtrate with titanium dioxide	[154]
	Streptomyces sp.	Spherical 30 to 70 nm	Anti-biofilm activity Antibacterial activity	Co-incubation of cell filtrate with TiO(OH)2	[35]
Extracellular ZnO-NPs	Haloalkaliphilic bacterial strain (Alkalibacillus sp. W7)	Quasi-spherical shape 1–30 nm	Antibacterial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive Antibiofilm activity Photocatalytic degradation for methylene blue and methyl orange dye	Co-incubation of bacterial cell filtrate with precursor solution ZnSO4.7H2O and zinc sulphate solution	[155]
	Acinetobacter schindleri	Polydispersed and spherical in shape	Antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria	Co-incubation of cells filtrate with zinc nitrate	[156]
	Rhodococcus pyridinivorans NT2	Hexagonal phase, roughly spherical 100–120 nm	Moderately stable Antibacterial activity against aerobic Gram-positive Staphylococcus epidermidis NCIM 249 Cytotoxic to colon carcinoma cells	Co-incubation of cell filtrate with ZnSO4.H2O	[157]
Extracellular CuO-NPs	Proteus mirabilis 10B	Rod, needle and wire shaped 17–37.5 nm width 112–615 nm length	Antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and -negative bacteria Antibiofilm activity	Co-incubation of bacterial cell filtrate with the Cu ion precursor Cu(NO3)2	[158]
	Stenotrophomonas sp. BS95	Roughly spherical particles 35–43 nm	Antibacterial activity Anticancer potential Antioxidant activity	Culture supernatant was co-incubated with copper sulfate pentahydrate	[159]
Extracellular MgO-NPs	Endobacterium Burkholderia rinojensis	Roughly spherical granular 26.7 nm	Significant antifungal activity and antibiofilm activity against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici.	Co-incubation of bacterial cell filtrate with magnesium nitrate (Mg (NO3)2)	[160]
Extracellular Fe2O3-NPs	Bacillus cereus strain HMH1	Spherical 29.3 nm	Highly Stable magnetic iron oxide NPs Anticancer potiential against breast carcinoma MCF-7 and 3T3 cells	Filtered bacterial supernatant was mixed with FeCl3·6H2O (5 min) followed by FeCl2·4H2O (after 30 min)	[161]

Figure 3. Production of reactive oxygen species by metal nanoparticles inside the affected cells.

MNP: Metal nanoparticle; ROS: Reactive oxygen species.

Table 4. Characteristics and fabrications techniques for the most commonly fungal synthesized metal nanoparticles.

MNPs	Secreting organisms	Size and shape	Advantageous properties	Fabrication technique	Ref.
AgNPs	Endophytic fungi Fusarium semitectum	–	Cytotoxic agent	Filtered fungal extract was mixed with AgNO3 at 29 °C for 24 h	[188]
			Antibacterial agent and antibiofilm activity against Porphyromonas gingivalis, Bacillus pumilus, and Enterococcus faecalis.		[189]
	Chaetomium thermophilum	Spherical 8.93 nm.	Safer and less toxic than chemically synthesized AgNPs	Cell free extract was mixed with AgNO3 heated at 90°C for 1 h.	[190]
	Fungal extract of Trametes trogii	Clustered	Alkaline pH is conducive to the synthesis of AgNPs by fungal species ligninolytic enzymes might be involved in synthesis	Fungal filtrate mixed with AgNO3 at 28 °C for 28 days then treated with KOH or NaOH for 5 days	[191]
	Aspergillus niger Trichoderma longibrachiatum	Spherical, cylindrical, and oval shapes 18–77 nm for A. niger AgNPs 15–54 nm for T. longibrachiatum	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, catalytic, anticoagulant, Thrombolytic agents Dye degradation Potiential use of fungal xylanase for AgNPs synthesis	xylanases synthesized by fungal strains mixed with AgNO3 at 30 °C for 5 min.	[192]
	Marine fungus Cladosporium halotolerans	Spherical AgNPs	Antioxidant Antifungal Dose dependent cytotoxic activity		[193]
	Pleurotus djamor var. roseus	Spherical shaped 5–50 nm	Anti-proliferative agent against prostate carcinoma cells	Filtered fungal extract was mixed with AgNO3 for 12 h.	[194]
	Inonotus obliquus	Spherical 14.7–35.2 nm	Antibacterial and anti-proliferative in cancer cells	Mushroom extract mixed with AgNO3 for 8 h.	[195]
AuNPs	Pathogenic Chrysosporium tropicum	Spherical shaped 20–50 nm	Larvicide against the Aedes aegypti larva	Filtered fungal extract mixed with HAuCl4 at 25 °C for 72 h.	[196]
	Yeast cells of Magnusiomyces ingens LH-F1	Sphere, triangle and hexagon 16–423 nm	Efficient catalysts for the reduction of nitrophenols.	Filtered fungal biomass mixed with HAuCl4 at 30°C for 24 h.	[197]
	Aspergillus sydowii	Spherical 8–15 nm	–	filtered fungal extract mixed with AuCl3 at 27 °C for 72 h.	[198]
	Cell surface proteins of Rhizopus oryzae	Spherical 16–19 nm	No harsh chemicals or multistep preparation required for synthesis or separation favoring environmental sustainability Good hemocompatibility and colloidal stability	Extraction of cell surface proteins from R. oryzae using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) Triton X-100, and 1,4-dithiothreitol prior to mixing with Au precursor	[199]
TiO2-NPs	Aspergillus flavus	Spherical Oval Aggregated 62–74 nm	Antimicrobial activity against E. coli	Mycelial filtrate mixed with TiO2 at 37 °C	[200]
	Baker's yeast.	Spherical 6.2 nm	Antibacterial against S. aureus Antifungal against C. albicans	TiCl3 solution added to 24 h old yeast culture, while stirring until a clear purple solution	[201]
	Aspergillus tubingensis TFR-5	Downy outer surface and showing monodispersity 1.5–30 nm	Plant nutrient fertilizer to enhance crop production	Mycelial filtrate mixed with TiO2 for 28 °C for 36 h.	[202]
IONP	Saccharomyces Cerevisiae (baker's yeast)	Spherical 155.7 nm	Antibacterial activity against Gram-positive B. sutblis	Ferric chloride/Ferrous sulphate solution mixed with freshly prepared cultures of yeast at 30°C for 2–3 days	[203]
	Penicillium roqueforti MK805460.1	Spherical 5–15 nm	Antibacterial activity against	–	[204]
CuO and ZnO-NPs	Aspergillus terreus strain AF-1	Spherical 11–47 nm	Antibacterial activity (used with cotton fabrics)	Fungal biomass filtrate mixed with CuSO4·5H2O for 24 h at 28 °C	[186]
	Trichoderma harzianum	CuO: Dispersed and elongated fibres 38–77 nm ZnO: fan and bouquet structure 27–40 nm	Antifungal activity against A. alternata and P. oryzae	Cell free mycelia filtrate were mixed with CuSO4·5H2O and ZnSO4·7H2O at 45 °C for 6–12 h.	[187]

Table 5. Examples of optimization strategies implemented to enhance characteristics of green metal nanoparticles.

Organism utilized for green synthesis	Utilized species	MNP	Factors optimized	Favorable outcomes	Advantages of biogenic MNP	Ref.
Bacteria	Soil bacteria Leclercia adecarboxylata THHM	AgNPs	• pH • Conc. of silver salt precursor solution (AgNO3) • Incubation time • Incubation temp. • Illumination condition • Conc. of bacterial filtrate	Incubation time of 72.0 h with 1.5 mM silver nitrate at 40.0 °C, pH 7.0, and a supernatant conc. 30% (v/v) under illumination	Monodispersed with ∼17 nm size Antibacterial and antifungal activity	[263]
	B. subtilis NRC1	AuNPs	Influence of nitrogen, carbon sources and metal ions were screened using one variable at a time (OVAT) method	Optimum conditions to increase AuNPs production by 2.6-fold: 0.74% (w/v) casein hydrolysate, 3.99% (w/v) dextrin, 47 × 10^6 CFU/ml, pH 7.76, at 25°C	Increased AuNPs yield with confidence factor 98.48%	[264]
	Halomonas elongata	SeNPs	For max. activity of SeNPs on Candida albicans growth, these factors were tested: • Sodium selenite concentration • Glucose concentration • Incubation time	70% inhibition of Candida albicans growth was observed with: 0.8 mg/ml Na selenite, 7.5 mg/ml glucose at 48 h. incubation	Effective antifungal and antibacterial agent for mouthwashes	[265]
Fungi	Penicillium sp.	AgNPs	Optimization of fungal growth conditions for optimal production of AgNPs (pH, biomass size, conc. of precursor salt, Temp., and incubation period)	For enhanced AgNPs production: pH 8, 37 °C, at 2 mM AgNO3 and 20 g of wet biomass.	Spherical well-dispersed 4–55 nm Antibacterial Cytotoxic agent	[266]
	Agaricus bisporus	AuNPs	Optimization of AuNPs production included: • Conc. of AuCl3 • Ratio of AuCl3 to volume of a mushroom extract, • pH • Temperature • Reaction time	Optimization conditions for max. production of AuNPs: pH 7, 1 mM HAuCl4, ratio of (1:9) mushroom extract to HAuCl4, incubate for 72 h at dark and 28°C	Spherical Monodispersed 10–50 nm Antibacterial and antifungal	[267]
Plant	Eucalyptus camaldulensis Terminalia arjuna extracts	AgNPs	Optimization of AgNPs production: • Conc. of AgNO3 • Incubation time • Incubation Temp. • pH	Max, amount of AgNPs using: 1 mM AgNO3 at 75 °C for 60 min.	Spherical Monodispersed Antibacterial activity	[268]
	Salvia africana-lutea Sutherlandia frutescens	AuNPs	Optimization of AuNPs production: • Incubation time • Temperature • Plant extract conc. • AgNO3 conc. • Sodium tetrachloroaurate (III) dihydrate (NaAuCl4 · 2H2O) conc.		Antibacterial activity	[269]

Xu L, Tetreault AR, Khaligh HH, Goldthorpe IA, Wettig SD, Pope MA. Continuous Langmuir-Blodgett deposition and transfer by controlled edge-to-edge assembly of floating 2d materials. Langmuir. 35(1), 51–59 (2019).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Swierczewski M, Bürgi T. Langmuir and Langmuir-Blodgett films of gold and silver nanoparticles. Langmuir. 39(6), 2135–2151 (2023).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bokov D, Turki Jalil A, Chupradit S, Suksatan W, Javed Ansari M, Shewael IH et al. Nanomaterial by Sol-Gel Method: Synthesis and Application. Adv Mat Sci Eng. 2021, 5102014 (2021).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gonçalves MC. Sol-gel silica nanoparticles in medicine: a natural choice. design, synthesis and products. Molecules. 23(8), 2021 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

González CMO, Morales EMC, Tellez ADMN, Quezada TES, Kharissova OV, Méndez-Rojas MA. Chapter 18 - CO2 capture by MOFs. Handbook of Greener Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Compounds. Elsevier, NY, USA, 407–448 (2021).

 Google Scholar

Ghoshal T, Biswas S, Paul M, De SK. Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by solvothermal method and their ammonia sensing properties. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 9(10), 5973–5980 (2009).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bajaj NS, Joshi RA. Chapter 3 - Energy materials: synthesis and characterization techniques. Energy Materials. Elsevier, NY, USA, 61–82 (2021).

 Google Scholar

de la Fuente-Jiménez JL, Rodríguez-Rivas CI, Mitre-Aguilar IB, Torres-Copado A, García-López EA, Herrera-Celis J et al. A Comparative and critical analysis for in vitro cytotoxic evaluation of magneto-crystalline zinc ferrite nanoparticles using mtt, crystal violet, ldh, and apoptosis assay. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 24(16), 12860 (2023).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Malik MA, Wani MY, Hashim MA. Microemulsion method: a novel route to synthesize organic and inorganic nanomaterials: 1st Nano Update. Arab. J. Chem. 5(4), 397–417 (2012).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chen Y, Zhang F, Wang Q, Lin H, Tong R, An N et al. The synthesis of LA-Fe3O4@PDA-PEG-DOX for photothermal therapy-chemotherapy. Dalton Trans. 47(7), 2435–2443 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Han H, Huang Z, Lee W. Metal-assisted chemical etching of silicon and nanotechnology applications. Nano Today. 9(3), 271–304 (2014).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liang LY, Kung YH, Hsiao VKS, Chu CC. Reduction of nitroaromatics by gold nanoparticles on porous silicon fabricated using metal-assisted chemical etching. Nanomaterials. 13(11), 1805 (2023).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Balachandran A, Sreenilayam SP, Madanan K, Thomas S, Brabazon D. Nanoparticle production via laser ablation synthesis in solution method and printed electronic application - A brief review. Results Eng. 16, 100646 (2022).

 Google Scholar

Sportelli MC, Izzi M, Volpe A, Clemente M, Picca RA, Ancona A et al. The Pros and Cons of the Use of Laser Ablation Synthesis for the Production of Silver Nano-Antimicrobials. Antibiotics. 7(3), 67 (2018).

 Google Scholar

Dawber M. Sputtering techniques for epitaxial growth of complex oxides. Epitaxial Growth of Complex Metal Oxides. Woodhead Publishing, NY, USA, 31–45 (2015).

 Google Scholar

Zhu M, Nguyen MT, Chau YR, Deng L, Yonezawa T. Pt/Ag Solid Solution Alloy Nanoparticles in Miscibility Gaps Synthesized by Cosputtering onto Liquid Polymers. Langmuir. 37(19), 6096–6105 (2021).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Virji MA, Stefaniak AB. A Review of Engineered Nanomaterial Manufacturing Processes and Associated Exposures. Comprehensive Materials Processing. Elsevier, NY, USA, 103–125 (2014).

 Google Scholar

Toozandehjani M, Matori KA, Ostovan F, Abdul Aziz S, Mamat MS. Effect of Milling Time on the Microstructure, Physical and Mechanical Properties of Al-Al2O3 Nanocomposite Synthesized by Ball Milling and Powder Metallurgy. Materials. 10(11), 1232 (2017).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hano C, Abbasi BH. Plant-Based Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles: Production, Characterization and Applications. Biomolecules. 12(1), 31 (2021).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ovais M, Khalil AT, Ayaz M, Ahmad I, Nethi SK, Mukherjee S. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles via microbial enzymes: a mechanistic approach. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 19(12), 4100 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Busi S, Rajkumari J. Chapter 15 - Microbially synthesized nanoparticles as next generation antimicrobials: scope and applications. Nanoparticles in Pharmacotherapy. William Andrew Publishing, NY, USA 485–524 (2019).

 Google Scholar

Guilger-Casagrande M, de Lima R. Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Mediated by Fungi: A Review. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 7, 287 (2019).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Simon S, Sibuyi NRS, Fadaka AO, Meyer S, Josephs J, Onani MO et al. Biomedical applications of plant extract-synthesized silver nanoparticles. Biomedicines. 10(11), 2792 (2022).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Akter M, Sikder MT, Rahman MM, Ullah A, Hossain KFB, Banik S et al. A systematic review on silver nanoparticles-induced cytotoxicity: physicochemical properties and perspectives. J. Adv. Res. 9, 1–16 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nande A, Raut S, Michalska-Domanska M, Dhoble SJ. Green synthesis of nanomaterials using plant extract: A Review. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol. 22(13), 1794–1811 (2021).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ambika S, Sundrarajan M. Antibacterial behaviour of Vitex negundo extract assisted ZnO nanoparticles against pathogenic bacteria. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B. 146, 52–57 (2015).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bala N, Saha S, Chakraborty M, Maiti M, Das S, Basu R et al. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Hibiscus subdariffa leaf extract: effect of temperature on synthesis, anti-bacterial activity and anti-diabetic activity. RSC Adv. 5(7), 4993–5003 (2015).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Das VL, Thomas R, Varghese RT, Soniya EV, Mathew J, Radhakrishnan EK. Extracellular synthesis of silver nanoparticles by the Bacillus strain CS 11 isolated from industrialized area. Biotech. 4(2), 121–126 (2014).

 Google Scholar

Deljou A, Goudarzi S. Green Extracellular synthesis of the silver nanoparticles using Thermophilic Bacillus Sp. AZ1 and its antimicrobial activity against several human pathogenetic bacteria. Iran J Biotechnol. 14(2), 25–32 (2016).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Abd Ali MA, Shareef AA. Antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles derived from extracellular Extract of Enterococcus aerogenes against dental disease bacteria isolated. Regen Eng Transl Med. (2023) doi: 10.1007/s40883-023-00304-2

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Altinsoy BD, Şeker Karatoprak G, Ocsoy I. Extracellular directed ag NPs formation and investigation of their antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties. Saudi Pharm J. 27(1), 9–16 (2019).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ameen F, AlYahya S, Govarthanan M, Aljahdali N, Al-Enazi N, Alsamhary K et al. Soil bacteria Cupriavidus sp. mediates the extracellular synthesis of antibacterial silver nanoparticles. J. Mol. Struct. 1202, 127233 (2020).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Iqtedar M, Aslam M, Akhyar M, Shehzaad A, Abdullah R, Kaleem A. Extracellular biosynthesis, characterization, optimization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using Bacillus mojavensis BTCB15 and its antimicrobial activity against multidrug resistant pathogens. Prep. Biochem. Biotechnol. 49(2), 136–142 (2019).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Korbekandi H, Iravani S, Abbasi S. Optimization of biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Lactobacillus casei subsp. casei. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 87(7), 932–937 (2012).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zada S, Ahmad A, Khan S, Iqbal A, Ahmad S, Ali H et al. Biofabrication of gold nanoparticles by Lyptolyngbya JSC-1 extract as super reducing and stabilizing agents: synthesis, characterization and antibacterial activity. Microb. Pathog. 114, 116–123 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cherian T, Maity D, Rajendra Kumar RT, Balasubramani G, Ragavendran C, Yalla S et al. Green chemistry based gold nanoparticles synthesis using the marine bacterium Lysinibacillus odysseyi PBCW2 and their multitudinous activities. Nanomaterials. 12(17), 2940 (2022).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Manivasagan P, Alam MS, Kang K-H, Kwak M, Kim S-K. Extracellular synthesis of gold bionanoparticles by Nocardiopsis sp. and evaluation of its antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng. 38(6), 1167–1177 (2015).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Vairavel M, Devaraj E, Shanmugam R. An eco-friendly synthesis of Enterococcus sp. mediated gold nanoparticle induces cytotoxicity in human colorectal cancer cells. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 27, 8166–8175 (2020).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Waghmode MS, Gunjal AB, Mulla JA, Patil NN, Nawani NN. Studies on the titanium dioxide nanoparticles: biosynthesis, applications and remediation. SN Appl Sci. 1(4), 310 (2019).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Prasad K, Jha AK, Kulkarni A. Lactobacillus assisted synthesis of titanium nanoparticles. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2, 248–250 (2007).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ağçeli GK, Hammachi H, Kodal SP, Cihangir N, Aksu Z. A novel approach to synthesize TiO2 nanoparticles: biosynthesis by using Streptomyces sp. HC1. J. Inorg. Organomet. Polym. Mater. 30(8), 3221–3229 (2020).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Al-Kordy HM, Sabry SA, Mabrouk ME. Statistical optimization of experimental parameters for extracellular synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles by a novel haloalaliphilic Alkalibacillus sp. W7. Sci rep. 11(1), 10924 (2021).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Busi S, Rajkumari J, Pattnaik S, Parasuraman P, Hnamte S. Extracellular synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Acinetobacter schindleri SIZ7 and its antimicrobial property against foodborne pathogens. J Microbiol Biotechnol Food Sci. 5(5), 407 (2016).

 Google Scholar

Kundu D, Hazra C, Chatterjee A, Chaudhari A, Mishra S. Extracellular biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Rhodococcus pyridinivorans NT2: multifunctional textile finishing, biosafety evaluation and in vitro drug delivery in colon carcinoma. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol. 140, 194–204 (2014).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Eltarahony M, Zaki S, Abd-El-Haleem D. Concurrent synthesis of zero-and one-dimensional, spherical, rod-, needle-, and wire-shaped CuO nanoparticles by Proteus mirabilis 10B. J. Nanomater. 2018, 1–14 (2018).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Talebian S, Shahnavaz B, Nejabat M, Abolhassani Y, Rassouli FB. Bacterial-mediated synthesis and characterization of copper oxide nanoparticles with antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer potentials. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 11, 1140010 (2023).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Abdel-Aziz MM, Emam TM, Elsherbiny EA. Bioactivity of magnesium oxide nanoparticles synthesized from cell filtrate of endobacterium Burkholderia rinojensis against Fusarium oxysporum. Mater Sci Eng. C. 109, 110617 (2020).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Fatemi M, Mollania N, Momeni-Moghaddam M, Sadeghifar F. Extracellular biosynthesis of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles by Bacillus cereus strain HMH1: characterization and in vitro cytotoxicity analysis on MCF-7 and 3T3 cell lines. J Biotechnol. 270, 1–11 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Halkai KR, Mudda JA, Shivanna V, Patil V, Rathod V, Halkai R. Cytotoxicity evaluation of fungal-derived silver nanoparticles on human gingival fibroblast cell line: an in vitro study. J Conserv Dent. 22(2), 160–163 (2019).

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Halkai KR, Halkai R, Mudda JA, Shivanna V, Rathod V. Antibiofilm efficacy of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles against endodontic-periodontal pathogens: an in vitro study. J Conserv Dent. 21(6), 662–666 (2018).

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Alves MF, Paschoal ACC, Klimeck TDMF, Kuligovski C, Marcon BH, de Aguiar AM et al. Biological synthesis of low cytotoxicity silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by the fungus chaetomium thermophilum—sustainable nanotechnology. J Fungi. 8(6), 605 (2022).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kobashigawa JM, Robles CA, Martínez Ricci ML, Carmarán CC. Influence of strong bases on the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using the ligninolytic fungi Trametes trogii. Saudi J Biol Sci. 26(7), 1331–1337 (2019).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Elegbede JA, Lateef A, Azeez MA, Asafa TB, Yekeen TA, Oladipo IC et al. Fungal xylanases-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles for catalytic and biomedical applications. IET Nanobiotechnol. 12(6), 857–863 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ameen F, Al-Homaidan AA, Al-Sabri A, Almansob A, AlNAdhari S. Anti-oxidant, anti-fungal and cytotoxic effects of silver nanoparticles synthesized using marine fungus Cladosporium halotolerans. Appl Nanosci. 13(1), 623–631 (2023).

 Google Scholar

Raman J, Reddy GR, Lakshmanan H, Selvaraj V, Gajendran B, Nanjian R et al. Mycosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Pleurotus djamor var. roseus and their in vitro cytotoxicity effect on PC3 cells. Proc Biochem. 50(1), 140–147 (2015).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nagajyothi PC, Sreekanth TVM, Lee J-I, Lee KD. Mycosynthesis: antibacterial, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of silver nanoparticles synthesized from Inonotus obliquus (Chaga mushroom) extract. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol. 130, 299–304 (2014).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Soni N, Prakash S. Efficacy of fungus mediated silver and gold nanoparticles against Aedes aegypti larvae. Parasitol. Res. 110, 175–184 (2012).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zhang X, Qu Y, Shen W, Wang J, Li H, Zhang Z et al. Biogenic synthesis of gold nanoparticles by yeast Magnusiomyces ingens LH-F1 for catalytic reduction of nitrophenols. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 497, 280–285 (2016).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Vala AK. Exploration on green synthesis of gold nanoparticles by a marine-derived fungus Aspergillus sydowii. Environ Prog Sustain. 34(1), 194–197 (2015).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kitching M, Choudhary P, Inguva S, Guo Y, Ramani M, Das SK et al. Fungal surface protein mediated one-pot synthesis of stable and hemocompatible gold nanoparticles. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 95, 76–84 (2016).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rajakumar G, Rahuman AA, Roopan SM, Khanna VG, Elango G, Kamaraj C et al. Fungus-mediated biosynthesis and characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles and their activity against pathogenic bacteria. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 91, 23–29 (2012).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Peiris M, Gunasekara T, Jayaweera P, Fernando S. TiO2 nanoparticles from Baker's yeast: a potent antimicrobial. J Microbial Biotechnol. 28(10), 1664–1670 (2018).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tarafdar A, Raliya R, Wang W-N, Biswas P, Tarafdar J. Green synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticle using Aspergillus tubingensis. Adv Sci Eng Med. 5(9), 943–949 (2013).

 Google Scholar

Ranjani VA, Rani GT, Sowjanya M, Preethi M, Srinivas M, Nikhil M. Yeast mediated synthesis of iron oxide nano particles: its characterization and evaluation of antibacterial activity. Int Res J Pharm Med sci. 5(5), 12–16 (2022).

 Google Scholar

Ali A, Elewa N, Elbostany N, Shetaia Y, Swilm M. Antimicrobial potentiality of green synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles by Penicillium roqueforti. Egypt. J Basic Appl Sci. 59(1), 29–43 (2021).

 Google Scholar

Hietzschold S, Walter A, Davis C, Taylor A, Sepunaru L. Does nitrate reductase play a role in silver nanoparticle synthesis? evidence for nadph as the sole reducing agent. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 7(9), 8070–8076 (2019).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rai M, Bonde S, Golinska P, Trzcińska-Wencel J, Gade A, Abd-Elsalam KA et al. Fusarium as a Novel Fungus for the Synthesis of Nanoparticles: Mechanism and Applications. J Fungi. 7(2), 139 (2021).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Abdelmoneim HM, Taha TH, Elnouby MS, AbuShady HM. Extracellular biosynthesis, OVAT/statistical optimization, and characterization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using Leclercia adecarboxylata THHM and its antimicrobial activity. Microb Cell Fact. 21(1), 277 (2022).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

El-Bendary MA, Afifi SS, Moharam ME, Elsoud MMA, Gawdat NA. Optimization of Bacillus subtilis NRC1 growth conditions using response surface methodology for sustainable biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles. Sci Rep. 12(1), 20882 (2022).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Safaei M, Mozaffari HR, Moradpoor H, Imani MM, Sharifi R, Golshah A. Optimization of green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles and evaluation of their antifungal activity against oral Candida albicans infection. Adv Mater Sci Eng. 2022, 1376998 (2022).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ma L, Su W, Liu JX, Zeng XX, Huang Z, Li W et al. Optimization for extracellular biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by Penicillium aculeatum Su1 and their antimicrobial activity and cytotoxic effect compared with silver ions. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl. 77, 963–971 (2017).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Krishnamoorthi R, Bharathakumar S, Malaikozhundan B, Mahalingam PU. Mycofabrication of gold nanoparticles: optimization, characterization, stabilization and evaluation of its antimicrobial potential on selected human pathogens. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol. 35, 102107 (2021).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liaqat N, Jahan N, Khalil Ur R, Anwar T, Qureshi H. Green synthesized silver nanoparticles: optimization, characterization, antimicrobial activity, and cytotoxicity study by hemolysis assay. Front Chem. 10, 952006 (2021).

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dube P, Meyer S, Madiehe A, Meyer M. Antibacterial activity of biogenic silver and gold nanoparticles synthesized from Salvia africana-lutea and Sutherlandia frutescens. Nanotechnology. 31(50), 505607 (2020).

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar