Assessment of late-life depression via self-report measures: a review

Figures & data

Figure 1 Flowchart of review procedure.

Table 1 Elder-specific self-report measures of depression

Name	Year	Item	Response type	Subscalea	Sample	Language	Reliabilityb	Test–retest	Cutoff	Validity	Factorial study
SDS	1965	20	Likert (4-point) [1 “a little of the time” to 4 “most of the time”]	One general factor	N=31 Patients with depressive disorders N=25 Nondepressed patients N=100 Nonclinical group	USA^Citation78	0.79–0.93^Citation79,Citation88,Citation91–Citation95		≥46 Sensitivity =80% Specificity =85%^Citation79 ≥45 Sensitivity =76% Specificity =96%^Citation88 ≥50 Sensitivity =83% Specificity =81%^Citation89 ≥60 Sensitivity =67% Specificity =92%^Citation89	Convergent MMPI D (depression) r=0.59–0.79^Citation89,Citation99,Citation101 GDS r=0.59–0.88^Citation79,Citation88,Citation93 DSI r=0.87^Citation102 HRS-D r=0.80^Citation79,Citation103 BDI r=0.85–0.86^Citation89 CES-D r=0.81; CPRS-D r=0.82; CS r=0.32^Citation88 DSC r=0.57^Citation93 Discriminant MMPI Pt (psychastenia) r=0.68; Ma (hypomania) r=0.13^Citation99	Three-factor structure^Citation114 Four-factor structure^Citation101,Citation112,Citation113,Citation115
GDS	1983	30	Dichotomous (yes/no)	One general factor	N=0.47 [55+ years old] Nonclinical elderly living in the community N=40 [55+ years old] Nonclinical elderly people recruited at local senior centers and housing projects N=60 [55+ years old] Patients with depressive disorders N=193 [17–55 years] Nonclinical sample	USA^Citation79	0.69–0.99^Citation79,Citation88,Citation93,Citation119,Citation121–Citation127	0.85–0.94^Citation79,Citation122	≥11–16= moderate depression^Citation79 ≥17–30= severe depression^Citation117,Citation120	Convergent SDS r=0.84–0.88^Citation79,Citation124 HRS-D r=0.77–0.83^Citation79,Citation124 DSC r=0.57^Citation93 CES-D r=0.82; CPRS-D r=0.86; BDI r=0.78; STAI-T r=0.47; QOLI r=0.49^Citation124 CS r=0.77^Citation88	Three-factor structure^Citation142,Citation144 Five-factor structure^Citation141,Citation143 Six-factor structure^Citation125
GDS-SF	1986	15	Dichotomous (yes/no)	One general factor	N=35 Mixed sample	USA^Citation82	0.75–0.90^Citation10,Citation154–Citation156	0.58^Citation156	≥4–6= moderate/severe depression^Citation152	Convergent GDS r=0.60–0.91^Citation148 MADRS r=0.78^Citation158	One-factor solution in depressed older adults^Citation160 Two-factor solution^Citation156,Citation160 Five-factor solution^Citation155
BDI-II	1996	21	Guttman (4-point) [0–3 representing ascending levels of severity]	One general factor	N=500 Psychiatric outpatient sample N=120 College students sample	USA^Citation83 Puerto Rico^Citation178	0.76–0.93^Citation83,Citation175–Citation183	0.93^Citation83	≥0–13= minimal depression ≥14–19= mild depression ≥20–28= moderate depression ≥29–63= severe depression^Citation83 ≥16= depressive disorders^Citation174	Convergent BDI r=0.84–0.93; HRS-D r=71; BHS r=0.68; BSI r=0.37^Citation83 CES-D r=0.69; CATI r=0.66; CATI Anxiety r=0.60; PSS r=0.64,^Citation177 GDS r=0.71^Citation180 OAS r=0.45^Citation181,Citation272 Discriminant SPWB r=−0.60, Subjective Health r=−0.27^Citation177 Anxiety subscale SCL-90-R r=0.71^Citation181	Two-factor structure^Citation83,Citation181 Four-factor structure^Citation178
CES-D-20	1977	20	Likert (4-point) [0 “rarely or none of the time” to 3 “most or all of the time”]	Depressed affect (7 items) Positive affect (4 items) Somatic and Retarded Activity (7 items) Interpersonal relations (2 items)	N=2,514 [18+ years old] Nonclinical participants living in Kansas and Washington County N=1,060 [18+ years old] Nonclinical participants living in Washington County N=1,422 [18+ years old] Nonclinical participants living in Kansans and Washington County N=419 Nonclinical participants recruited by email N=70 Psychiatric patients	USA^Citation84 The Netherlands^Citation213 India^Citation207 China^Citation224	0.86–0.90 for the patient sample^Citation22,Citation84,Citation212 0.72–0.93 in nonclinical sample^Citation22,Citation71,Citation84,Citation177,Citation203,Citation207,Citation220–Citation223,c	–	Two-stage approach: ≥15–16= severe depression plus ≥4 on the depressed affect subscale^Citation212	Convergent BDI-II r=0.69–0.75^Citation177,Citation231 HADS-D r=0.50^Citation221 GDS r=0.82; HRS r=0.74; CPRS-D r=0.83; SDS r=0.81^Citation88 MASQ r=0.75; MASQ-AD r=0.72^Citation231 Discriminant PSWQ r=0.36^Citation234 STICSA-T r=0.59; TICSA-S r=0.47; TICSA-C r=0.61; STAI-T r=0.70^Citation231	Four-factor structure^Citation222
CES-D-11	1993	11	Likert (3-point) [0 “hardly ever or never” to 2 “much or most of the time”]	Depressed affect (3 items) Positive affect (2 items) Somatic and retarded activity(4 items) Interpersonal relations (2 items)		USA^Citation219	0.83 in a sample of older adults^Citation219		≥16= moderate/severe depression^Citation86,Citation219		Four-factor structure^Citation219
CES-D-10	1994	10	Likert (4-point) [0 “rarely or none of the time” to 3 “most or all of the time”]	Depressed affect (3 items) Positive affect (2 items) Somatic and retarded activity (5 items)	N=1,542 [65+ years old] Healthy older adults in a large Health Maintenance Organization	USA^Citation86 Singapore^Citation225 South Africa^Citation256 Taiwan^Citation224 China^Citation257	0.78–0.92 in a clinical sample^Citation70,Citation216,Citation222,Citation227,Citation228 0.71–0.86 in a nonclinical sample^Citation210,Citation218,Citation224–Citation226 0.78–0.79^Citation70 in a 554 elderly in the general Chinese community, 30 elderly from a Chinese community center and 31 elderly Chinese patients with depressive symptoms	0.44–0.83^Citation70,Citation86,Citation216	≥10= moderate/severe depression Sensitivity =97% Specificity =84%^Citation216	Convergent PS r=0.36, SS r=0.43, PANAS-PA r=0.63^Citation86 Discriminant LSS r=−0.44, LSNS r=−0.30, ADL r=0.41^Citation70	Two-factor structure^Citation70,Citation86 Unidimensional factor structure^Citation218
CES-D-8	2009	8	Likert (4-point) [1 “rarely or none of the time” to4 “most or all of the time”]	One general factor	N=13,032 [60+ years old] Healthy older adults	Europe^Citation217	0.84^Citation217			Discriminant ESS-SWB-SL r=−0.52; ESS-SWB-H r=0.56, ESS-ST r=−0.28, LOT-O r=−0.46; Subjective health r=−0.52, BPNS r=−0.33, RSE r=−0.45, Social relationship r=−0.21, OASIS r=0.59^Citation217	Unidimensional factor structure^Citation217,Citation243,Citation258

Notes:

a The data relating to the validation sample have been reported, here (where possible);

b Reliability measured as Cronbach α;

c McDonald ω.

Abbreviations: SDS, Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; GDS-SF, Geriatric Depression Scale – Short Form; BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory-II; CES-D-20, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale – 20 item form; CES-D-11, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale – 11 item form; CES-D-10, Center for Epidemiologic Studies of Depression – 10 item form; CES-D-8, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale – 8 item form; MMPI D, Depression subscale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; DSI, Depression Status Inventory; HRS-D, Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; CPRS-D, Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale-Depression; CES-D, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression; HDRS-R, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale – revised; DSC, Depression Symptom Checklist; MMPI Pt, Psychastenia scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; MMPI Ma, Hypomania scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; STAI-T, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory – Trait subscale; QOLI, Quality of life inventory; CS, Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia; MADRS, Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale; CATI, Coolidge Axis II Inventory – Anxiety Subscale; BHS, Beck Hopelessness Scale; BSI, Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation; PSS, Perceived Stress Scale; SCL-90-R, Symptoms Check List-90-Revised; SPWB, Short Psychological Well-Being Scale; MASQ, Mood Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire; MASQ-AD, Anhedonic depression subscale of the MASQ; PSWQ, Penn State Worry Questionnaire; STICSA-T, Trait Subscale of the State-Trait for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety; TICSA-S, Trait Somatic subscale of the State-Trait for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety; TICSA-C, Trait Cognitive subscale of the State-Trait for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety; STAI-T, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; PS, Pain Scale; SS, Stress Scale; PANAS-PA, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule – positive affect; LSS, Life Satisfaction Scale; LSNS, Lubben Social Network Scale; ADL, Activities of Daily Living; ESS-SWB-SL, Subjective Well-Being subscale of the European Social Survey – satisfaction of live; ESS- SWB-H, Subjective Well-Being subscale of the European Social Survey – happiness; LOT-O, Life Orientation Test – optimist; BPNS, Basic Psychological Needs Scale; RSE, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; OASIS, Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale.

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