Preparation, characterization, and potential application of chitosan, chitosan derivatives, and chitosan metal nanoparticles in pharmaceutical drug delivery

Figures & data

Figure 1 Chemical structure of chitosan showing the repeating subunits.

Table 1 Methods of preparation of chitosan micro/nanoparticles loaded with different pharmacotherapeutic agents

Encapsulated agent	Method of preparation	Examples
Thermosensitive and less stable substances	• Cross-linking techniques
	1. Physical cross-linking
	1.1. Ionic gelation	Interleukin-2, insulin, tetanus toxoid, DNA, albumin, and influenza subunit antigen
	1.2. Complex coacervation	Plasmid DNA
	1.3. Polyelectrolyte complex (PEC)	Insulin, VEGF, heparin, and hyaluronan
	2. Chemical cross-linking	Insulin, BSA, and progesterone
	• Drying technique
	1. Spray drying	Salmon calcitonin and BSA
	2. Super critical drying	Insulin
	• Reverse micellar method	BSA
Other drugs of different pharmacotherapeutic groups	• Emulsion cross-linking	Diclofenac sodium, aspirin, cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, mitoxantrone, griseofulvin, phenobarbitone, pentazocine, theophylline, pamidronate, lisinopril, rabeprazole, and suberoylbisphosphonate
	• Emulsion droplet coalescence	Gadopentetic acid
	• Sieving method	Clozapine
	• Reverse micellar method	Doxorubicin
	• Ionic gelation	Felodipine, triclosan, and furosemide
	• Precipitation/coacervation	Prednisolone, ketorolac, and doxorubicin
	• Spray drying	Betamethasone, ampicillin, oxytetracycline, cetylpyridinium chloride, cimetidine, famotidine, nizatidine, vitamin D, diclofenac sodium, ketoprofen, and metoclopramide-HCl
	• Thermal cross-linking	Indomethacin
	• Solvent evaporation	Metformin

Abbreviations: BSA, bovine serum albumin; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.

Figure 2 Schematic representation of production of chitosan micro/nanoparticles by chemical cross-linking.

Figure 3 Scanning electron micrograph of chitosan nanoparticles produced using nanoemulsion internal cross-linking technique.

Figure 4 Schematic representation of the spray-drying technique used for the manufacturing of chitosan particulate systems.

Figure 5 Schematic representation of reverse micellar technique.

Table 2 The technology, instrument, and particle size range suitable for each particle size

Technology	Particle size range	Instrument
Taylor dispersion analysis	0.2 nm to >20 nm	Viscosizer
Dynamic light scattering	<1 nm to >1 μm	Zetasizer
Nanoparticle tracking analysis	<30 nm to >1 μm	NanoSight
Resonant mass measurement	50 nm to 5 μm	Archimedes
Laser diffraction	<100 nm to >2 mm	Mastersizer, Insitec, Spraytech
Spatial filter velocimetry	<50 μm to 6 mm	Parsum
Automated imaging	<1 μm to >3 mm	Morphologi (G3 and G3-ID), Sysmex FPIA

Figure 6 Structure of the skin and subcutaneous layers and common routes of parenteral drug administration.