Factors Predicting Mental Health Among Women in Low-Income Communities of a Changing Society: A Mixed-Methods Study

Figures & data

Figure 1 Intersectional tensions and social determinants of health influencing women’s health.

Table 1 Phase 2 Participant Characteristics (N = 261)

Characteristic	n (%)	M (SD)
Age (n = 261)		38.46 (10.12)
Years in urban environment		19.26 (14.19)
Marital status (n = 261)
Single	5 (1.9)
Married	236 (90.5)
Separated/divorced	4 (1.5)
Widow	16 (6.1)
Family style (n = 261)
Nuclear	181 (69.3)
Joint	80 (30.7)
Years married (n = 253)		18.56 (11.21)
Religion (n = 261)
Hindu	125 (47.9)
Muslim	119 (45.6)
Christian	17 (6.5)
Education (n = 261)
College or vocational training	18 (6.8)
Higher Secondary (high school)	53 (20.3)
Secondary (middle school)	99 (37.9)
≤Primary (grade school)	91 (34.8)
Paid work (n = 261)
No	145 (55.6)
Yes (either at home or outside)	116 (44.4)
Health problems (n = 261)
None	191 (73.2)
Anemia	8 (3.1)
Diabetes	34 (13.0)
Hypertension	22 (8.4)
Other	6 (2.3)
Tobacco and/or Paan use (n = 261)
None	257 (98.5)
Tobacco/Paan	4 (1.5)
Psychosocial problems (n = 261)
None	197 (75.5)
Anxiety/depression	62 (23.7)
Other	2 (0.8)
Contraception (n = 261)
None	119 (45.6)
Sterilization	139 (53.3)
Other	3 (1.1)
Age at first pregnancy (n = 234)		21.01 (3.88)
Total number of children (n = 235)		2.4 (1.17)

Table 2 Comparing Women with and without HSCL Scores ≥ 1.65

Parameter	Women with Elevated HSCL (n = 129)	All Other Women (n = 130)	t (258)	p	95% CI	Cohen’s d
	M (SD)	M (SD)
Autonomy	8.15 (2.64)	7.99 (2.53)	−0.488	0.626	[−0.79, 0.48]	0.06
Wishful thinking	10.84 (4.34)	8.85 (3.57)	−4.011	0.000	[−2.96, −1.01]	0.50
Practical coping	12.44 (3.86)	12.68 (4.19)	0.475	0.635	[−0.75, 1.22]	0.06
Positive religious coping	4.69 (2.15)	3.72 (1.40)	−4.32	0.000	[−1.42, −0.53]	0.84
Post migration living difficulties	16.62 (13.71)	6.56 (6.30)	−7.51	0.000	[−12.70, −7.41]	0.94
Social Provision of Support	33.08 (4.45)	35.95 (3.60)	5.72	0.000	[1.89, 3.87]	0.71
Satisfaction with Life	21.78 (8.30)	26.53 (4.81)	5.63	0.000	[3.08, 6.41]	0.70
Hopkins Symptom Checklist	2.39 (0.56)	1.26 (0.18)	−21.89	0.000	[−1.23, −1.03]	2.72

Table 3 Regressions of Predictor Variables on Mental Health, Measured by HSCL (Depression and Anxiety Symptomology)

	Variable	B	SE	t	p	95% CI
Model 1: All participants (N = 260)	Constant	2.377	0.339	7.015	0.000	[1.709, 3.044]
	PMLD	0.027	0.004	7.683	0.000	[0.020, 0.034]
	Wishful thinking	0.023	0.009	2.624	0.009	[0.006, 0.041]
	Positive religious coping	0.014	0.018	0.781	0.436	[−0.022, 0.050]
	Social provision of support	−0.027	0.008	−3.228	0.001	[−0.044, −0.011]
	Satisfaction with life	−0.009	0.006	−3.228	0.118	[−0.020, 0.002]
	R^2	0.44
	F for change in R^2	39.20***
Model 2: Participants with HSCL <1.65 (N = 130)	Constant	1.525	0.176	8.656	0.000	[1.176, 1.874]
	Age	0.002	0.001	1.215	0.227	[−0.001, 0.005]
	PMLD	0.003	0.003	1.351	0.179	[−0.002, 0.008]
	Wishful thinking	0.007	0.004	1.479	0.142	[−0.002, 0.015]
	Social provision of support	−0.007	0.004	−1.546	0.125	[−0.015, 0.002]
	Satisfaction with life	−0.007	0.003	−1.919	0.057	[−0.013,0.004]
	R^2	0.15
	F for change in R^2	4.425**
Model 3: Participants with HSCL ≥1.65 (N = 129)	Constant	2.423	0.479	5.055	0.000	[1.474, 3.371]
	Age	−0.005	0.005	−1.013	0.313	[−0.014, 0.004]
	PMLD	0.017	0.004	4.433	0.000	[0.009, 0.024]
	Wishful thinking	0.018	0.011	1.675	0.096	[−0.003, 0.040]
	Social provision of support	−0.005	0.010	−0.486	0.628	[−0.025, 0.015]
	Satisfaction with life	−0.008	0.006	−1.258	0.211	[−0.020, 0.004]
	R^2	0.34
	F for change in R^2	12.569***

Notes: **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Abbreviations: HSCL, Hopkins Symptom Checklist; PMLD, Post Migration Living Difficulties; CI, confidence interval.