Knowledge, practice, and barriers toward cervical cancer screening in Elmina, Southern Ghana

Figures & data

Table 1 Sociodemographic data of respondents (n=392)

Variables	Frequency	Percentage
Age group (years)
10–19	45	11.5
20–29	128	32.7
30–39	107	27.3
40–49	58	14.8
50–59	39	9.9
≥60	15	3.8
Marital status
Married	162	41.3
Single	95	24.2
Cohabiting	84	21.4
Widowed	27	6.9
Divorced	24	6.1
Polygamous marriage
Yes	51	13.0
No	341	87.0
Place of residence
Elmina traditional	151	38.5
Bronyibima	87	22.2
Pershie	64	16.3
Teterkessimu	59	15.1
Bantoma	31	7.9
Ethnicity
Fante	341	87.0
Ga	10	2.6
Ewe	8	2.0
Gawu	8	2.0
Asante	7	1.8
Others	18	4.6
Religion
Christianity	342	87.1
Islam	47	12.0
Hindu	1	0.3
Atheist	1	0.3
Others	1	0.3
Educational level
No formal education	70	17.9
Primary	88	22.4
Junior high school/middle school	170	43.4
Senior high school	40	10.2
College diploma	13	3.3
University degree	11	2.8
Occupation
Petty trading	158	40.3
Fishmonger	48	12.3
Dressmaking	37	9.4
Hairdressing	25	6.4
Others	124	31.6
Employment status
Self-employed	278	70.9
Unemployed	47	12.0
Government employee	27	6.9
Student	17	4.3
Housewife	9	2.3
Retired	7	1.8
Private sector	7	1.8
Monthly household income
<GH¢157	225	57.4
GH¢157–200	108	27.6
GH¢201–500	42	10.7
GH¢501–900	13	3.3
>GH¢900	4	1.0
Social class/status
Upper middle class	4	1.0
Middle class	12	3.1
Lower middle class	19	4.8
Skilled working class	63	16.1
Working class	211	53.8
Nonworking class	83	21.2

Table 2 Barriers hindering cervical cancer screening among respondents

Scale items	Loadings	Barrier factors
There are no screening sites in the community	0.849	Institutional barriers
There is limited information on cervical cancer in the community	0.873	Institutional barriers
The screening sites are too far from where I live	0.939	Institutional barriers
There are no health education programs to promote screening	0.376	Institutional barriers
I do not know what the test is all about	0.944	Personal barriers
I do not know of any screening sites	0.948	Personal barriers
Pap smear test is embarrassing	0.896	Negative belief barriers
Pap smear test is painful	0.885	Negative belief barriers
I have not engaged in risky sexual behaviors in the past	0.673	Social barriers
It is against my religious beliefs and cultural values to go for screening	0.782	Social barriers
My partner would not allow me to go for screening	0.715	Social barriers
I do not feel at risk of getting cervical cancer	0.775	Negative misconception barriers
I am not sexually active so do not need to go for a Pap smear	0.864	Negative misconception barriers
I am scared of a cancer diagnosis and treatment	0.759	Fatalistic misconception barriers
Past vaginal examination tests have been uncomfortable	0.739	Fatalistic misconception barriers
It is difficult to schedule a test appointment	0.580	Fatalistic misconception barriers
I cannot afford the cost of screening	0.934	Financial barriers
Pap smear is not covered by health insurance	0.188	Financial barriers

Table 3 Association between Pap smear test and the barriers to Pap test

Barriers	Chi-square values	df	P-value
Personal barriers	26.055	5	0.000
Negative belief barriers	21.915	4	0.000
Fatalistic misconception barriers	20.005	6	0.000
Negative misconception barriers	20.965	4	0.000
Financial barriers	27.533	5	0.000
Social barriers	19.519	4	0.001
Institutional barriers	28.965	4	0.000