Diet-Related Inflammation is Associated with Major Depressive Disorder in Bahraini Adults: Results of a Case-Control Study Using the Dietary Inflammatory Index

Figures & data

Table 1 Anthropometric and Sociodemographic Characteristics of Cases with Depression and Their Counterpart Healthy Controls

Variable	Cases (n=96)	Controls (n=96)	P-value*
Continuous variables		Mean ± SD
Age (year)	42.48± 13.5	44.14± 12.58	0.38
Wt (kg)	75.16± 16.48	76.36± 18.58	0.63
Ht (cm)	164.73± 9.55	162.68± 9.53	0.13
BMI (kg/)	27.44± 6.12	28.99± 7.32	0.11
BSA ()	1.85± 0.23	1.84± 0.24	0.98
TBW (L)	36.08± 6.6	35.98± 6.35	0.91
LM (kg)	48.9± 8.38	48.41± 8.02	0.68
FM (kg)	26.26± 10.19	27.94± 13.02	0.31
BFP (%)	32.67± 10.03	35.38± 12.03	0.09
Categorical variables		n (%)
Male	37(38.54%)	37(38.54%)	1.00
Overweight	30(31.25%)	35(36.46%)	0.25
Obese	36(37.50%)	25(26.04%)
Education
Primary	27(28.42%)	12(12.50%)	0.005
Secondary	65(68.42%)	73(76.04%)
Tertiary	3(3.16%)	11(11.46%)
Job
Unemployed	69(71.88%)	27(28.13%)	0.001
Social status
Single	31(32.29%)	17(17.71%)	0.001
Physical activity
Inactive	65(67.71%)	47(48.96%)	0.001
Smoking
Current smoker	35(37.23%)	10(10.42%)	0.001
Medical comorbidity
Type 2 diabetes mellitus	26(27.08%)	7(7.29%)	0.001
Hypertension	27(28.13%)	11(11.46%)	0.004

Notes: *Independent samples t-test or Pearson Chi². Bold values indicate significance at P<0.05.

Abbreviations: Wt, weight; Ht, height; BMI, body mass index; BSA, body surface area; TBW, total body water; LM, lean mass; FM, fat mass; BFP, body fat percentage.

Table 2 Distribution of Dietary Factors, Nutrients, and Energy-Adjusted Dietary Inflammatory Index (E-DII) for Cases and Control Subjects

Nutrient or Dietary Factor/Day (Mean ± SD)	Cases (n=96)	Controls (n=96)	P-value*
Energy (Kcal)	2650.4± 884	2267± 520.1	0.001
Protein (g)	109.3± 38.2	87.0± 24.6	0.001
Carbohydrates (g)	275.4± 104.4	269.6± 64.45	0.64
Fibers (g)	20.9± 14.7	18.0± 6.6	0.09
Fats (g)	72± 27	58.9± 18.0	0.001
SFA (g)	34.7± 13	26.35± 8.5	0.001
MUFA (g)	24.2± 10.2	19.3± 6.2	0.001
PUFA (g)	17.0± 8	14.7± 6.4	0.03
Trans-fats (g)	0.4± 0.2	0.4± 0.35	0.40
Cholesterol (mg)	360.2± 148.2	232.3± 87	0.001
Omega-3 (g)	0.8± 0.5	0.75± 0.35	0.25
Omega-6 (g)	10.5± 6.3	9.2± 4.8	0.11
B1 (Thiamin) (mg)	1.4± 0.56	1.45± 0.5	0.75
B2 (Riboflavin) (mg)	1.6± 0.56	1.4± 0.5	0.045
B3 (Niacin) (mg)	20.4± 7.8	18.9± 6.5	0.16
B6 (Pyridoxine) (mg)	2.1± 0.8	2.1± 0.6	0.74
B12 (Cobalamin)(mcg)	3.1± 2.3	3.2± 2.1	0.82
Vitamin C (mg)	91± 59	114± 63.1	0.01
Vitamin D (IU)	81± 65	87.15± 66	0.50
Vitamin E (mg)	3.0± 1.6	2.6± 1.4	0.03
Vitamin A (IU)	994± 400.4	807.5± 260.5	0.80
β-carotene (µg)	1915.1± 944.5	1810± 849	0.001
Folic acid (µg)	431.1± 201	423.5± 219	0.42
Iron (mg)	39.3± 18	31.5± 12.2	0.001
Magnesium (mg)	319.5± 187.2	337± 155.2	0.49
Selenium (µg)	64.4± 25.0	57.9± 2	0.06
Zinc (mg)	9.5± 4.2	7.65± 2.7	0.001
Alcohol (g)	0±0	0±0	NA
Caffeine (mg)	164.35± 182.5	240± 276	0.03
Calcium (mg)	665.3± 314	637.5± 279.3	0.52
Sodium (mg)	2136.25± 867.1	1699.6± 625.14	0.001
Phosphorus (mg)	913.2± 306	839.3± 262	0.07
Potassium (g)	3186± 1163.5	3021± 805.5	0.25
DII Normal	1.04± 1.28	0.78± 0.80	0.09
DII Density (E-DII)	1.72± 1.09	0.90± 0.90	0.001

Notes: *Independent samples t-test. Bold values indicates significance at P<0.05.

Table 3 Odds Ratios (OR) and Confidence Intervals for Tertiles of Energy-Adjusted Dietary Inflammatory Index (E-DII) (and E-DII as Continuous) Associated with the Diet of Patients with Depression

Tertiles of Energy-Adjusted Dietary Inflammatory Index (E-DII)*
	Tertile 1	Tertile 2	Tertile 3	E-DII (Continuous)
E-DII Range	≤0.59	0.60–1.20	≥1.21	96/96
Cases/Controls	32/31	13/32	51/33
Multivariate-adjusted ^a	1.0 (Ref)	1.46 (0.50–4.27)	7.17 (2.7–19.04)	2.75* (1.82–4.15)

Notes: P-trend = 0.01, significance at P<0.05. ^aAdjusted for covariates. Covariates included: body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, education, employment, and sex.