Common Inflammatory Mechanisms in COVID-19 and Parkinson’s Diseases: The Role of Microbiome, Pharmabiotics and Postbiotics in Their Prevention

Figures & data

Figure 1 The scheme of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.

Abbreviations: ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; ACE-I, ACE inhibitor; AT1-R, the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1 receptor); AT2-R, the angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2 receptor); Mas-R, mas receptor; Ang-(1-7), angiotensin-(1–7); Ang-(1-9), angiotensin-(1-9); ACE, angiotensin-converting-enzyme; ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; Ang-I, angiotensin I; Ang-II, angiotensin II.

Table 1 Examples of the Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Lactobacteria

Lactobacillus Species and Strains	Experimental Model	Benefits	Reference
L. plantarum	Female BALB/c mice.	Downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and an increase in anti-inflammatory cytokines in human.	[^Citation277,^Citation284]
L. rhamnosus CNCM I-3690	HT-29 cells and dendritic cells.	Clear anti-inflammatory profile and increase of viability and average of worm lifespan.	[^Citation277,^Citation285]
L. reuteri BM36301	C57BL/6 mice.	Anti-inflammatory role and maintaining healthy conditions of mice as they aged.	[^Citation32,^Citation277,^Citation286]
81 lactobacteria strains of 6 different species	E. coli MG1655 strains carrying plasmids encoding luminescent biosensors pSoxS-luxand pKatG-lux.	51 strains demonstrated antioxidant activity.	[^Citation32,^Citation59]
L. acidophilus ATCC 43121, L. acidophilus ATCC 4356, L. acidophilus 606, L. brevis ATCC 8287, L. casei YIT 9029, L. casei ATCC 393, L. rhamnosus GG	The human cancer cells.	Heat-killed cell of L. acidophilus 606 and L. casei ATCC 393 exhibited the most profound inhibitory activity in the all of tested cell lines; the soluble polysaccharides components of L. acidophilus 606 evidenced the effective anticancer activity.	[^Citation32,^Citation287]
L. brevis MG000874	Albino mice exposed toD-galactose-induced oxidative stress.	The treated animals displayed improvement in superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione S-transferase in all tissues, as well as glutathione in the liver and serum.	[^Citation32,^Citation288]
L. fermentum U-21	C57/BL6 mice, C. elegans exposed to paraquat-induced oxidative stress.	The lifespan of the C. elegans was extended by 25%. L. fermentum U-21 ensured normal coordination of movements and the safety of dopaminergic neurons in the brain.	[^Citation32,^Citation289]
Lactobacillus brevis 47 f	The Balb/c mice with 5-fluorouracil induced mucositis and oxidative stress.	Protects the murine intestine from enteropathy induced by 5-fluorouracil and prevent of lipid peroxidation in the gut tissues and in the blood plasma.	[^Citation290]
L. plantarum A7 (KC 355240, LA7)	24 type2 diabetic kidney disease patients.	Oxidized glutathione concentration was significantly reduced; the levels of glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase were significantly increased; no significant reduction in the 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α, malon dialdehyde.	[^Citation32,^Citation291]
L. acidophilus, L. casei	Diabetic hemodialysis patients, 28 cases and 27 placebos.	Patients who received probiotic supplements showed significantly decreased plasma glucose, serum insulin, assessment-estimated insulin resistance and beta-cell function and HbA1c, insulin sensitivity, serum C-reactive protein, plasma malon dialdehyde, and total iron-binding capacity. Patients showed an increase in plasma total antioxidant capacity.	[^Citation32,^Citation292]

Figure 2 Lactobacteria from the different microbiome sources and the possibilities of their use as probiotics or pharmabiotics,and postbiotics in the prevention and therapy the human diseases.

Figure 3 The intestinal microbiome influences the host organism due to its ability to synthesize various biologically active compounds.

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