Antihistamine and Wound Healing Potential of Gold Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Bulbine frutescens (L.) Willd

Figures & data

Table 1 Cosmetic Use of Various Nano-Delivery Systems and Their Benefits⁴⁰

Nano-Delivery Systems	Cosmetic Use	Advantage
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles	Used in any topical treatment that claims to have UV protection including sunscreens, moisturizers and lip balms. Provides more protection against UVB.	Easily absorbed, non-oily and a UV filter
Silver nanoparticles	Wound disinfectant and used as a preservative in toothpaste and shampoo.	Broad antimicrobial activity and can be used as a preservative.
Gold nanoparticles	Wound disinfectant, anti-inflammatory creams, face packs and anti-aging creams	Biocompatible, stable, non-toxicity to cell lines between approximately 1–67 µM/L, antifungal activity, antibacterial properties and displays anti-aging properties by reducing UVA absorption.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles	Mostly used in treatments that reduce the effects of aging caused by UVB radiation and is used in sunscreens and moisturizers	Easily absorbed, non-oily and acts as a UV filter.

Table 2 Potential Functional Groups Were Identified Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR) in Bulbine Frutescens Extracts and Synthesized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Functional Group	Bulbine frutescens Extract	Transmittance of Extract	Transmittance of AuNP Solutions
Alcohol and phenolic groups (O-H)	BFE ^a	3289	3321
	BFE^+ b	3259
	BFG ^c	3243
	BFS ^d	3273	3274
Carboxylic acid	BFE	1246 and 1257	-
Derivatives of carboxylic acid (C=O and O-C bonds)	BFE	-	1637
	BFE+	1620
	BFG	1593
	BFS	1643	1640
Phenolic groups (O-H with broad C-O bonds)	BFE	1072	-
	BFE+	1022	-
	BFG	1055	-
	BFS	1041	-

Notes: ^a Bulbine frutescens freeze-dried leaf juice extract, ^b Bulbine frutescens ethanolic whole leaf extract, ^c Bulbine frutescens gel extract, ^d Bulbine frutescens preserved leaf juice solution.

Abbreviations: HaCaT, human keratinocytes; IC₅₀, fifty percent inhibitory concentration; DMEM, Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Media; RPMI-1640, Roswell Park Memorial Institute 1640 Medium; ACK, Ammonium Chloride Potassium lysis buffer; PBS, Phosphate-buffered saline; FBS, Fetal bovine serum; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; PMA, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; NaCl, sodium chloride; BSA, bovine serum albumin; AuNPs, gold nanoparticles; UV-Vis, Ultraviolet visible spectrometry; SPR, Surface plasmon resonance; HRTEM, High resolution transmission electron microscopy; DLS, Dynamic Light Scattering; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry; SAED, Selected area electron diffraction; EDS, Energy disperser spectrometer.

Figure 1 (A) Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) of the freeze-dried leaf juice extract (BFE) and synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFEAuNPs), (B) high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and (C) selected area diffraction pattern (SAED).

Figure 2 (A) Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) of the ethanolic whole leaf extract (BFE+) and synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFE⁺AuNPs), (B) high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and (C) selected area diffraction pattern (SAED).

Figure 3 (A) Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) of the gel extract (BFG) and synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFGAuNPs), (B) high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and (C) selected area diffraction pattern (SAED).

Figure 4 (A) Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) of the preserved leaf juice solution (BFS) and synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFSAuNPs), (B) high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and (C) selected area diffraction pattern (SAED).

Figure 5 In vitro stability of Bulbine frutescens freeze-dried leaf juice synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFEAuNPs) in (A) Roswell Park Memorial Institution (RPMI-1640) media, (B) Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s media (DMEM), (C) 5% sodium chloride (NaCl), (D) pH of 4, (E) 7 and (F) 10 and (G) 0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA).

Figure 6 In vitro stability of Bulbine frutescens ethanolic whole leaf synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFE⁺AuNPs) in (A) Roswell Park Memorial Institution (RPMI-1640) media, (B) Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s media (DMEM), (C) 5% sodium chloride (NaCl), (D) pH of 4, (E) 7 and (F) 10 and (G) 0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA).

Figure 7 In vitro stability of Bulbine frutescens gel synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFGAuNPs) in (A) Roswell Park Memorial Institution (RPMI-1640) media, (B) Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s media (DMEM), (C) 5% sodium chloride (NaCl), (D) pH of 4, (E) 7 and (F) 10 and (G) 0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA).

Figure 8 In vitro stability of Bulbine frutescens preserved leaf juice synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFSAuNPs) in (A) Roswell Park Memorial Institution (RPMI-1640) media, (B) Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s media (DMEM), (C) 5% sodium chloride (NaCl), (D) pH of 4, (E) 7 and (F) 10 and (G) 0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA).

Figure 9 Cell viability of (A) BF freeze-dried leaf juice (BFE), ethanolic whole leaf (BFE⁺) and gel extract (BFG), (B) BF freeze-dried leaf juice synthesized gold nanoparticle (BFEAuNPs) and ethanolic whole leaf synthesized gold nanoparticle (BFE⁺AuNPs) solutions at a concentration of 400–50 µg/mL and (C) BF preserved leaf juice (BFS), preserved leaf juice synthesized gold nanoparticle (BFSAuNPs) solutions at a concentration of 2 and 1% and gel synthesized gold nanoparticle (BFGAuNPs) solution at 10 and 5% on wound stimulated human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells. Data represents mean ± SEM (n=2). A significant difference was determined using a one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparison test, where p < 0.01 (**) and p < 0.001 (***) indicate significance when compared to the vehicle (0.5% DMSO) and water control (+).

Figure 10 Percentage wound closure of (A) BF freeze-dried leaf juice (BFE), ethanolic whole leaf (BFE⁺) and gel extract (BFG) at 100 and 50 µg/mL, (B) BF freeze-dried leaf juice synthesized gold nanoparticle (BFEAuNPs) and ethanolic whole leaf synthesized gold nanoparticle (BFE⁺AuNPs) solutions at 100 and 50 µg/mL and (C) BF preserved leaf juice (BFS), preserved leaf juice synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFSAuNPs) at 2 and 1% and gel synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFGAuNPs) at 10 and 5% on human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells. Data is represented as mean ± SEM (n=2) Significant difference was determined using a one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparison test, where p < 0.05 (*), p < 0.01 (**) and p < 0.001 (***) indicate significance when compared to the vehicle (0.5% DMSO) control or the untreated control (+).

Figure 11 Cell viability of the freeze-dried leaf juice (BFE) extract and synthesized gold nanoparticles using the freeze-dried leaf juice (BFEAuNPs) at a concentration of 200, 100 and 50 µg/mL on phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) stimulated granulocytes. Data represents mean ± SEM (n=2). A significant difference was determined using a one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparison test when compared to either the untreated (media with PMA) or 0.25% DMSO (vehicle) control (+).

Figure 12 Histamine production of (A) BF freeze-dried leaf juice extracts (BFE) and (B) BF freeze-dried leaf juice synthesized gold nanoparticles (BFEAuNPs) at a concentration of 200, 100 and 50 µg/mL using phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) stimulated granulocytes. Data represents mean ± SEM (n=2). Significant difference was determined using a one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparison test, where p < 0.05 (*), p < 0.01 (**) and p < 0.001 (***) indicate significance when compared to either the 0.25% DMSO (vehicle) or untreated (media) control (+).

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