Knowledge And Attitudes Of Pharmacy Students Towards Pharmacogenomics Among Universities In Jordan And West Bank Of Palestine

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic Data Of The Participating Students

Parameter	Frequency (Percentage)
Age (years)
<20	59 (12.7%)
20–24	347 (74.5%)
>24	53 (11.4%)
Missing	7 (1.5%)
Total	466 (100%)
Country
Jordan	262 (56.2%)
West Bank of Palestine	190 (40.8%)
Missing	14 (3%)
Total	466 (100%)
Sex
Male	78 (16.7%)
Female	360 (77.3%)
Missing	28 (6%)
Total	466 (100%)
University
Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan	140 (30%)
Al-Isra’a University	59 (12.7%)
University of Jordan	78 (16.7%)
An-Najah National University	131 (28.1%)
Birzeit University	49 (10.5%)
Missing	9 (1.9%)
Total	466 (100%)
Pharmacy educational program
Pharmaceutical Science	382 (82%)
Doctor of Pharmacy	82 (17.6%)
Missing	2 (0.4%)
Total	466 (100%)
Average mark achieved in the university
50–59	9 (1.9%)
60–69	66 (14.2%)
70–79	144 (30.9%)
80–89	161 (34.5%)
90–100	78 (16.7%)
Missing	8 (1.7%)
Total	466 (100%)
Academic year
First	14 (3%)
Second	68 (14.6%
Third	84 (18%)
Fourth	151 (32.4%)
Fifth	119 (25.5%)
Master of Science	21 (4.5%)
Missing	9 (1.9%)
Total	466 (100%)

Table 2 Educational Exposure To PGx

Question	Frequency (Percentage)
Did you study, during your university education, that there are inter-individual and inter-ethnic variations in the drug response?
Yes	372 (79.8%)
I am not sure	48 (10.3%)
No	41 (8.8%)
Missing	5 (1.1%)
Total	466 (100%)
How did you learn about PGx?
University lectures	342 (73.4%)
Scientific conferences	12 (2.6%)
Social media	94 (20.2%)
Television programs	9 (1.9%)
Missing	9 (1.9%)
Total	466 (100%)
How many pharmaceutical courses mentioned and described PGx?
0	108 (23.2%)
1	185 (39.7%)
2	85 (18.2%)
More than 2	80 (17.2%)
Missing	8 (1.7%)
Total	466 (100%)
How many lectures, from different courses, mentioned and described the effect of genetic variants on the drug response?
<3	258 (55.4%)
3–5	104 (22.3%)
6–10	53 (11.4%)
>10	42 (9%)
Missing	9 (1.9%)
Total	466 (100%)
Did the PGx information you received during pharmaceutical courses enable you to understand the effect of genetic variants on the drug response?
Yes	47 (10.1%)
I am not sure	125 (26.8%)
No	281 (60.3%)
Missing	13 (2.8%)
Total	466 (100%)
Did the lecturers describe the effect of genetic variants on the drug response clearly?
Yes	183 (39.3%)
I am not sure	181 (38.8%)
No	93 (20%)
Missing	9 (1.9%)
Total	466 (100%)

Table 3 PGx Knowledge Among Participant Pharmacy Students In Jordan And West Bank Of Palestine (n = 466)

Question	I Know	I Am Not Sure	I Do Not Know	Missing
Inherited genetic variants may influence the drug response	448 (96.1%)	7 (1.5%)	5 (1.1%)	6 (1.3%)
Inter-individual variation in response to drugs and toxicity may be due to inherited genetic variants	433 (92.9%)	14 (3%)	14 (3%)	5 (1.1%)
There is an inter-ethnic variation in the drug response	410 (88%)	31 (6.7%)	20 (4.3%)	5 (1.1%)
Inter-individual variation in pharmacokinetic parameters may be due to genetic variations	383 (82.2%)	47 (10.1%)	31 (6.7%)	5 (1.1%)
Inter-individual variation in pharmacodynamics, and the interaction between the drugs and molecular targets, may be due to genetic variations	365 (78.3%)	64 (13.7%)	31 (6.7%)	6 (1.3%)
Some patients have a high risk of drug toxicity due to inherited genetic variants	374 (80.3%)	57 (12.2%)	27 (5.8%)	8 (1.7%)
Some patients do not respond to medicines due to some inherited variants	392 (84.1%)	47 (10.1)	21 (4.5%)	6 (1.3%)
The drug response can be predicted using genetic biomarkers	319 (68.5%)	103 (22.1%)	35 (7.5%)	9 (1.9%)

Note: Data are presented as n (%).

Table 4 Comparison Of Basic PGx Knowledge Of Participating Students Depending On The Participating University, Sex And Academic Year

Parameter	Average of PGx Knowledge^a	N	SD	p
University
Al-Zaytoonah University	7.60	140	2.50	0.1
Al-Isra’a University	7.68	59	2.72
University of Jordan	7.85	78	2.57
An-Najah National University	6.61*	131	2.31
Birzeit University	7.85	49	1.89
Academic year
First year	5.50	14	1.99	<0.001
Second year	6.34	68	2.01
Third year	6.49	84	2.49
Fourth year	7.66	151	2.41
Fifth year	8.23	119	2.33
Master of Science	9.19	21	2.01
Sex
Male	6.89	78	2.87	0.04
Female	7.52	360	2.41
Pharmacy program
Pharmaceutical Science	7.4	82	2.3	0.73
Doctor of Pharmacy	7.3	382	2.1

Notes: ^aPGx knowledge was calculated based on the Likert scale: +1 for “I know”, 0 for “I am not sure” and −1 for “I do not know”. The Student’s t-test was used to compare between two groups, whereas ANOVA was used to compare between more than two groups. *Indicates significant p < 0.05 for the comparison in PGx among An-Najah National University students with other university students.

Table 5 Knowledge About PGx Testing Recommended By The US FDA (n = 466)

Question	I know	I am not sure	I do not know	Missing
CYP2C9 variants may affect metabolism and, hence, the warfarin response	276 (59.2%)	172 (36.9%)	13 (2.8%)	5 (1.1%)
VKORC1 variants may affect the pharmacodynamics and, hence, the warfarin response	184 (39.5%)	170 (36.5%)	106 (22.8%)	6 (1.3%)
Genetic variants in endothelial growth factor receptors affects the response to erlotenib	149 (31.97%)	303 (65.02%)	8 (1.71%)	6 (1.3%)
FDA provides clinical evidence for PGx testing in the labeling of many drugs	79 (17%)	172 (36.91%)	204 (44.4%)	8 (1.71%)

Note: Data are presented as n (%).

Abbreviations: CYP2C9, cytochrome 2C9 gene; VKORC1, vitamin K epoxide reductase gene; FDA, Food and Drug Administration.

Table 6 Attitudes Towards PGx Testing (n = 466)

Question	Yes	I Am Not Sure	No	Missing
Do you think that PGx testing can improve your future work in choosing the right drug and dose?	421 (90.3%)	23 (4.9%)	13 (2.8%)	9 (1.9%)
Do you want to know more about PGx?	432 (92.7%)	13 (2.8%)	15 (3.2%)	6 (1.3%)
Do you want to apply PGx testing in your future work?	384 (82.4%)	63 (13.5%)	14 (3%)	5 (1.1%)
Do you want to study the postgraduate program in PGx	147 (31.5%)	207 (44.4%)	105 (22.5%)	7 (1.5%)

Note: Data are presented as n (%).

Table 7 Factors Correlated With PGx Knowledge

Factor	Correlation coefficient	p
Age	0.30	<0.001*
Country	−0.08	0.69
Academic year	0.39	<0.001*
University	0.01	0.57
Sex	0.06	0.45
Achieved marks	0.24	0.01*
Academic program	0.01	0.73
Way of receiving PGx information	0.15	0.04*
Number of course subjects on PGx	0.28	<0.001*
Number of lectures on PGx	0.38	<0.001*
Clear PGx lectures	0.43	<0.001*

Note: *p < 0.05.

Table 8 Factors Correlated With Attitudes Toward PGx

Factor	Correlation coefficient	p
Age	0.02	0.77
Country	−0.02	0.71
Academic year	0.02	0.60
University	−0.09	0.11
Sex	−0.05	0.45
Achieved marks	0.05	0.45
Academic program	0.18	0.03*
Way of receiving PGx information	0.09	0.10
Number of course subjects on PGx	0.02	0.74
Number of lectures on PGx	0.06	0.59
Clear PGx lectures	0.02	0.74

Note: *p< 0.05.