The effect of cannabis use on memory function: an update

Figures & data

Table 1 Memory tests

Neurocognitive test	Acronym	Memory domain
Alphabet task	AT	Executive function
Benton visual retention test	BVRT	Visuospatial memory
Boston naming test	BNT	Verbal fluency (semantic memory)
Buschke selective reminding test	BSRT	Verbal learning and verbal memory
California verbal learning test	CVLT	Verbal learning and memory
Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery	CANTAB	Verbal and visual memory, learning, working memory, executive function
– ST: paired associate learning test	– CANTAB-PAL	– Visual associative memory and learning
– ST: rapid visual information processing task	– CANTAB-RVIPT	– Working memory
– ST: spatial span	– CANTAB-SS	– Spatial memory span
– ST: spatial working memory	– CANTAB-SWM	– Spatial working memory
– ST: one-touch stockings of cambridge	– CANTAB-OTSC	– Working memory
Controlled oral word association test	COWAT	Verbal fluency (semantic memory)
Delayed matching to sample	DMTS	Visual memory and working memory
Delayed recall	DR	Long-term episodic memory
Digit recall task	DRT	Visual memory
Digit span task	DSP	Working memory
Digit symbol substitution task	DSST	Visual memory
Face–name pair learning	FNPL	Verbal learning
Hopkins verbal learning test	HVLT	Verbal learning and memory
MicroCog: assessment of cognitive functioning	MicroCog	Logical memory and working memory
N-back task	N-BACK	Working memory
Omitted numbers	ON	Working memory
Paced auditory serial addition test	PASAT	Working memory
Repeated acquisition task	RAT	Learning
Perceptual priming task	PPT	Implicit memory
Pictorial memory task	PMT	Associative memory and retrieval
Prose recall	PR	Verbal memory
Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test	RAVLT	Verbal learning and memory
Rey-Osterrieth complex figure test	CFT	Visuospatial memory
Short-delay response task	SDRT	Working memory
Spatial working memory task	SWMT	Spatial working memory
Subtracting serial sevens	SS7	Working memory
Sternberg memory task	SMT	Working memory
Tower of London	TOL	Executive function
Verbal fluency task	VFT	Semantic memory
Verbal memory task	VMT	Verbal memory
Wechsler memory scale	WMS	Memory function
Wechsler adult intelligence scale (processing speed index)	WAIS-PS	Working memory
Wechsler adult intelligence scale (working memory index)	WAIS-WM	Working memory
Wechsler adult intelligence scale (verbal comprehension index)	WAIS-VC	Verbal memory
Wisconsin card sorting test	WCST	Executive function, working memory
Word recognition task	WRT	Verbal memory

Abbreviation: ST, subtest.

Table 2 Acute effects of Δ9-THC on memory

Author	Subjects (gender ratio)	Age in years (M)	Previous cannabis exposure	Dose of Δ9- THC (route)	Memory testa
Low-dose Δ9-THC
Heavy users (≥joint/day)
Hart et al^Citation49	n = 18 (10 m/8 f)	25	6.1 (M) days cannabis use/week (±1.3); 4 joints per occasion (M)	1.8% (I)		MicroCog″ DRT″ DSST″ RAT″
Hart et al^Citation56 (EEG)	n = 24 (13 m/11 f)	26	6.3 (M) days cannabis use/week (±1.0); 4 joints per occasion (M)	1.8% (I)		N-BACK″ WRT″
Ramaekers et al^Citation45	n = 21 (15 m/6 f)	23	373.7 (M) times cannabis use/year, 5 (M) joints per occasion	400 μg/kg (I)		TOL″
Regular users (cannabis use > 1/month)
Henquet et al^Citation42	n = 74 (56 m/18 f)	27	Cannabis use in past 12 months; 51% of the subjects had >1 time cannabis use/day	300 μg/kg (I)	DMTS* RAVLT*
Ilan et al^Citation43 (EEG)	n = 11 (6 m/5 f)	26	≥10 × lifetime cannabis use; 15 joints (M)/month	1.8% (I)	N-BACK* WRT*
Occasional users (no or minimal previous exposure to cannabis)
Bhattacharyya et al^Citation16 (fMRI)	n = 15 (m only)	27	Lifetime cannabis use episodes ≤ 15	10 mg (O)		WMS″
Bossong et al^Citation143 (fMRI)	n = 13 (m only)	22	≥4 × cannabis use/lifetime; <1/week	6 mg (I)		PMT″
Bossong et al^Citation144 (fMRI)	n = 17 (m only)	21	≥4 × cannabis use/lifetime; <1/week	6 mg (I)	SMT*
Curran et al^Citation8	n = 15 (m only)	24	Prior experience; ≤1 cannabis exposure/week	7.5 mg (O)	BSRT* VFT*	PPT″ RVIPT″ SS7″ PR″ DR″
D’Souza et al^Citation12	n = 22 (14 m/8 f)	29	Prior experience; 6 subjects used cannabis > 100 times/lifetime	5 mg (IV)	DMTS* HVLT*	VFT″
Englund et al^Citation61	n = 26 (14 m/12 f)	26	Previous cannabis use ≥ 1	1.5 mg (IV)	DSP* HVLT*
Morrison et al^Citation44 (EEG)	n = 16 (7 m/6 f)	26	Previous cannabis use ≥ 1	1.25 mg (IV)	N-BACK*
High-dose Δ9-THC
Heavy users (≥joint/day)
Hart et al^Citation56 (EEG)	n = 24 (13 m/11 f)	26	6.3 (M) days cannabis use/week (±1.0); 4 joints per occasion (M)	3.9% (I)		N-BACK″ WRT″
Hart et al^Citation49	n = 18 (10 m/8 f)	25	6.1 (M) days cannabis use/week (±1.3); 4 cigarettes per occasion (M)	3.9% (I)	DRT* MicroCog*	RAT″ DSST″
Ramaekers et al^Citation55	n = 12 (9 m/3 f)	23	340 (M) joints/year, 2.3 (M) joints per occasion, 6.2 (M) years cannabis use	500 μg/kg (I)		TOL″
Weinstein et al^Citation41	n = 14 (10 m/4 f)	27	≥1 joint/day in the last 5 years	17 mg (I)	WCST*
Regular users (cannabis use > 1/month)
Ilan et al^Citation43 (EEG)	n = 12 (6 m/6 f)	26	≥10 × lifetime cannabis use; 13 joints (M)	3.6% (I)	N-BACK* WRT*
Ilan et al^Citation142 (EEG)	n = 10 (NR)	27	Cannabis use in past 12 months; cannabis use episodes ≥ 1/month, ≤1/week	3.45% (I)	N-BACK* WRT*
Hunault et al^Citation9	n = 24 (m only)	24	7.7 (standard deviation 3.7) joints/month	69.4 mg (I)	SMT*
Ramaekers et al^Citation54	n = 12 (8 m/4 f)	23	55 (M) times cannabis use/year, 1.2 (M) joints per occasion, 7.4 (M) years of cannabis use	500 μg/kg (I)		TOL″
Occasional users (no or minimal previous exposure to cannabis)
Böcker et al^Citation57 (EEG)	n = 16 (m only)	18–45	>2 and <9 cigarettes/month	69.4 mg (I)	SMT*
Curran et al^Citation8	n = 15 (m only)	24	Prior experience; ≤1 cannabis exposure/week	15 mg (O)	PR* BSRT* VFT* DR*	PPT″ RVIPT″ SS7″
Lane et al^Citation40	n = 5 (3 m/2 f)	21 to 34	Cannabis use 2 to 10 times/month	2.20% (I)	DMTS*
Lane et al^Citation40	n = 5 (3 m/2 f)	21 to 34	Cannabis use 2 to 10 times/month	3.89% (I)	DMTS*
Morrison et al^Citation13	n = 22 (m only)	28	2–1000 prior cannabis use episodes, negative urine test	2.5 mg (IV)	DSP* RAVLT*	VFT″
Ramaekers et al^Citation54	n = 20 (14 m/6 f)	19–29	≥5 times cannabis use in past year, not daily users	500 μg/kg (I)	TOL*
Weinstein et al^Citation41	n = 14 (10 m/4 f)	27	≥1 joint/day in the last 5 years	13 mg (I)	WCST*

Notes:

* Δ9-THC induced deficits in performance;

″ Δ9-THC did not induce deficits in performance;

a see Table 1.

Abbreviations: Δ9-THC, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol; M, mean; n, number; m, male; f, female; I, inhalation (smoking); MicroCog, MicroCog Assessment of Cognitive Functioning; DRT, digit recall task; DSST, digit symbol substitution task; RAT, repeated acquisition task; N-BACK, N-back task; WRT, word recognition task; TOL, Tower of London; DMTS, delayed matching to sample; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; EEG, electroecephalography study; fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging study; O, oral; WMS, Wechsler Memory Scale; PMT, pictorial memory task; SMT, Sternberg memory task; IV, intravenous; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; WCST, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; PR, prose recall; BSRT, Buschke Selektive Reminding Test; VFT, verbal fluency task; DR, delayed recall; PPT, perceptual priming task; RVIPT, rapid visual information processing task; SS7, subtracting serial sevens; DSP, digit span task.

Table 3 Effects of cannabis use on memory performance

Author	Subjects	Age in years (M)	Age of onset of use (M)	Cannabis use in years (M)	Joints [episodes]/lifetime (M)	Joints/month (M)	Days of use/month (M)	Abstinence period	Controlled confoundera	Memory testsb
Former cannabis users (history of cannabis use, ≤ 12 joints in the last 3 months)
Pope^Citation73	n = 45	41	NR	15 (median)	11,000 (median)	≤2 last 3 months	NR	7 days	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G, IQ		BVRT″ BSRT″
Fried et al^Citation74	n = 16	18	14	2.2	2203	0	NR	Day of testing (NS)	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G, SES		WAIS-PS″ WMS″
Current regular cannabis users (<30 joints/month or <20 days/month or <2000 joints/lifetime)
Jager et al^Citation77 (fMRI)	n = 10	23	NR	7.1	1300 (median)	NR	NR	1 week	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, A, G, IQ		SMT″
Jager et al^Citation78 (fMRI)	n = 20	25	NR	NR	1900 (median)	NR	NR	NU	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, A, G, IQ		PMT″
Grant et al^Citation111	n = 16	22	NR	NR	NR	NR	12	NR	DU, PC, A, G, SES, E	CANTAB-OTSC*	CANTAB-RVIPT″ CANTAB-SWM″
Harvey et al^Citation113	n = 34	16	NR	NR	NR	12 (median)	12 (median)	12 hours	DU, PC, A, G	CANTAB-RVIPT* CANTAB-SWM* RAVLT*	CANTAB-SS″ WAIS-WM″ CANTAB-PAL″
Current heavy cannabis users (≥30 joints/month or ≥20 days/month or ≥2000 joints/lifetime)
Kanayama et al^Citation96 (fMRI)	n = 12	38	NR	NR	19,200	≥28	NR	NR	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, G, E		SDRT″
Smith et al^Citation112 (fMRI)	n = 10	20	NR	4.6	2697	46	NR	<5 hours	DU, PC, IQ, PF		N-BACK″
Messinis et al^Citation83	n = 20	24	NR	7	NR	≥16	21	123 hours (M)	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, G, IQ, E	RAVLT* VFT*	BNT″
Solowij et al^Citation33	n = 51	29	NR	10.2	NR	NR	27	17 hours (M)	DU, PC, A, G, IQ		RAVLT″ WCST″ AT″ ON″ PASAT″
Fontes et al^Citation82	n = 55	30	19	10.9	6790	51	NR	4.1 days (M)	PC, MC, A, IQ, E	WCST*	WAIS-VC″
Bolla et al^Citation30	n = 7	21	NR	5.3	NR	375	NR	28 days	DU, PC, A, G, IQ	CFT* PAL* WCST* RAVLT*	WMS″
Short-term cannabis users (<4 years of cannabis use)
Schweinsburg et al^Citation79 (fMRI)	n = 15	17	NR	3.4	310	NR	13	48 hours	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, A		SWMT″
Schweinsburg et al^Citation80 (fMRI)	n = 13	17	NR	2.3	342	NR	14	3.3 days (M)	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, A, G, IQ, SES		SWMT″
Schweinsburg et al^Citation80 (fMRI)	n = 13	18	NR	2.7	515	NR	17	38 days (M)	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, A, G, IQ, SES		SWMTv
Medina^Citation92	n = 31	18	NR	2.91	541	57	NR	28 days	PC, MC, A, G, SES, E	WMS*	CFT″ CVLT″
Fried et al^Citation74	n = 19	18	16	1.8	122	6	NR	Day of testing (NS)	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G, SES		WMS″
Block et al^Citation109 (PET)	n = 18	NR	NR	3.9	NR	72	NR	16 hours (M)	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G, BV, HW	BSRT*	WAIS-PS″
Long-term cannabis users (cannabis use > 15 years)
Pope^Citation73	n = 63	36	NR	19 (median)	18,720 (median)	≥28	NR	7 days	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G, IQ	BSRT*	BVRT″
Messinis et al^Citation83	n = 20	33	NR	15.6	NR	≥16	20	≥24 hours	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, G, IQ, E	BNT* RAVLT* VFT*
Battisti et al^Citation84	n = 24	36	17 (median)	17.0	NR	435 (median)	30 (median)	12 hours	PC, MC, A, G, E	VMT*
Solowij et al^Citation33	n = 51	41	NR	23.9	NR	NR	28	17 hours (M)	DU, PC, A, G, IQ	AT* RAVLT*	ON″ PASAT″ WCST
Late-onset cannabis users (≥17 age of onset)
Fontes et al^Citation82	n = 49	30	21	8.7	5160	45	NR	3.8 days (M)	PC, MC, A, IQ, E		WCST″ WAIS-VC″
Pope et al^Citation85	n = 63	44	≥17	NR	12,480 (median)	NR	NR	28 days	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G	WCST*	BSRT″ BVRT″ WMS″
Early-onset cannabis users (<17 age of onset)
Solowij et al^Citation31	n = 52	19	16	2.4	NR	17.5	14 (median)	20 hours (median)	DU, PC, G, IQ, E	RAVLT*
Fried et al^Citation74	n = 19	18	15	2.6	1884	12.4	NR	Day of testing (NS)	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G, SES	WAIS-PS* WMS*
Hanson et al^Citation75	n = 19	18	16	NR	465	NR	16	3 days	PC, MC, A, G, IQ, SES	HVLT* WAIS-WM*
Ashtari et al^Citation97 (MRI)	n = 14	19	13	5.3	NR	174	NR	6.7 months (M)	DU, PC, A, G, IQ, SES, BV		CVLT″
Nestor et al^Citation138	n = 35	22	16.5	5.7	NR	NR	23	15 hours (M)	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, A, G, IQ	FNPL*
Gruber et al^Citation32	n = 34	23	15.5	7.24	≥2500	77	NR	12 hours	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, A, IQ	WCST*	CFT″ CVLT″ COWAT″
Pope et al^Citation85	n = 69	36	<17	NR	17,368 (median)	NR	NR	28 days	DU, PC, PsyM, A, G	BSRT* WCST*	BVRT″ WMS″
Jager et al^Citation102 (fMRI)	n = 21	17	13	NR	4006	NR	NR	5.1 weeks (M)	DU, PC, MC, PsyM, IQ		PMT″ SMT″

Notes:

* Poorer performance when compared to noncannabis users;

″ no differences in performance when compared to noncannabis users;

a controlled though exclusion, matching, or statistical methods;

b see Table 1.

Abbreviations: M, mean; n, number; NR, not reported; DU, other drug use; PC, psychiatric condition; PsyM, psychoactive medication; A, age; G, gender; IQ, Intelligence Quotient; BVRT, Benton Visual Retention Test; BSRT, Buschke Selective Reminding Test; NS, not further specified; SES, socioeconomic status; WAIS-PS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Processing Speed Index); WMS, Wechsler Memory Scale; MC, medical condition; SMT, Sternberg Memory Task; NU, negative urine toxicology; PMT, pictorial memory task; E, education; CANTAB-OTSC, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery One-Touch Stockings of Cambridge; CANTAB-RVIPT, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery rapid visual information processing task; CANTAB-SWM, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery Spatial Working Memory; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; CANTAB-SS, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery spatial span; WAIS-WM, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Working Memory Index); CANTAB-PAL, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery Paired Associate Learning Test; SDRT, short-delay response task; PF, personality factors; N-BACK, N-back task; VFT, verbal fluency task; BNT, Boston naming test; WCST, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; AT, alphabet task; ON, omitted numbers; PASAT, Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test; WAIS-VC, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Verbal Comprehension Index); CFT, Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test; PAL, paired associate learning test; SWMT, spatial working memory task; CVLT, California Verbal Learning Test; PET, positron emission tomography study; BV, brain volume; HW, height and weight; VMT, verbal memory task; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging study; FNPL, face–name pair learning; COWAT, controlled oral word association test; fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging study.

HartCLvan GorpWHaneyMFoltinRWFischmanMWEffects of acute smoked marijuana on complex cognitive performanceNeuropsychopharmacology200125575776511682259

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

HartCLIlanABGevinsANeurophysiological and cognitive effects of smoked marijuana in frequent usersPharmacol Biochem Behav201096333334120600251

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

RamaekersJGTheunissenELde BrouwerMToennesSWMoellerMRKauertGTolerance and cross-tolerance to neurocognitive effects of THC and alcohol in heavy cannabis usersPsychopharmacology (Berl)2011214239140121049267

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

HenquetCRosaAKrabbendamLAn experimental study of catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met moderation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced effects on psychosis and cognitionNeuropsychopharmacology200631122748275716936704

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

IlanABGevinsAColemanMElSohlyMAde WitHNeurophysiological and subjective profile of marijuana with varying concentrations of cannabinoidsBehav Pharmacol2005165–648749616148455

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BhattacharyyaSFusar-PoliPBorgwardtSModulation of mediotemporal and ventrostriatal function in humans by Delta9- tetrahydrocannabinol: a neural basis for the effects of Cannabis sativa on learning and psychosisArch Gen Psychiatry200966444245119349314

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BossongMGJagerGvan HellHHEffects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on human encoding and recall memory function: a pharmacological FMRI studyJ Cogn Neurosci201224358859922066583

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BossongMGJansmaJMvan HellHHEffects of δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on human working memory functionBiol Psychiatry201271869369922341370

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

CurranHVBrignellCFletcherSMiddletonPHenryJCognitive and subjective dose-response effects of acute oral Delta 9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in infrequent cannabis usersPsychopharmacology (Berl)20021641617012373420

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

D’SouzaDCPerryEMacDougallLThe psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosisNeuropsychopharmacology20042981558157215173844

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

EnglundAMorrisonPDNottageJCannabidiol inhibits THC-elicited paranoid symptoms and hippocampal-dependent memory impairmentJ Psychopharmacol Epub1052012

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

MorrisonPDNottageJStoneJMDisruption of frontal θ coherence by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol is associated with positive psychotic symptomsNeuropsychopharmacology201136482783621150914

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

RamaekersJGKauertGTheunissenELToennesSWMoellerMRNeurocognitive performance during acute THC intoxication in heavy and occasional cannabis usersJ Psychopharmacol200923326627718719045

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

WeinsteinABricknerOLermanHA study investigating the acute dose-response effects of 13 mg and 17 mg Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on cognitive-motor skills, subjective and autonomic measures in regular users of marijuanaJ Psychopharmacol200822444145118635724

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

IlanABSmithMEGevinsAEffects of marijuana on neurophysiological signals of working and episodic memoryPsychopharmacology (Berl)2004176221422215502936

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

HunaultCCMensingaTTBöckerKBCognitive and psychomotor effects in males after smoking a combination of tobacco and cannabis containing up to 69 mg delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)Psychopharmacology (Berl)20092041859419099294

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

RamaekersJGMoellerMRvan RuitenbeekPTheunissenELSchneiderEKauertGCognition and motor control as a function of Delta9-THC concentration in serum and oral fluid: limits of impairmentDrug and Alcohol Depend2006852114122

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BöckerKBHunaultCCGerritsenJKruidenierMMensingaTTKenemansJLCannabinoid modulations of resting state EEG θ power and working memory are correlated in humansJ Cogn Neurosci20102291906191619803687

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

LaneSDCherekDRLievingLMTcheremissineOVMarijuana effects on human forgetting functionsJ Exp Anal Behav2005831678315762381

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

MorrisonPDZoisVMcKeownDAThe acute effects of synthetic intravenous Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on psychosis, mood and cognitive functioningPsychol Med200939101607161619335936

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

PopeHGJrGruberAJHudsonJIHuestisMAYurgelun-ToddDNeuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis usersArch Gen Psychiatry2001581090991511576028

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

FriedPAWatkinsonBGrayRNeurocognitive consequences of marihuana – a comparison with pre-drug performanceNeurotoxicol Teratol200527223123915734274

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

JagerGKahnRSVan Den BrinkWVan ReeJMRamseyNFLong-term effects of frequent cannabis use on working memory and attention: an fMRI studyPsychopharmacology (Berl)2006185335836816521034

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

JagerGVan HellHHDe WinMMEffects of frequent cannabis use on hippocampal activity during an associative memory taskEur Neuropsychopharmacol200717428929717137758

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

GrantJEChamberlainSRSchreiberLOdlaugBLNeuropsychological deficits associated with cannabis use in young adultsDrug Alcohol Depend20121211–215916221920674

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

HarveyMASellmanJDPorterRJFramptonCMThe relationship between non-acute adolescent cannabis use and cognitionDrug Alcohol Rev200726330931917454021

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

KanayamaGRogowskaJPopeHGGruberSAYurgelun-ToddDASpatial working memory in heavy cannabis users: a functional magnetic resonance imaging studyPsychopharmacology (Berl)20041763–423924715205869

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

SmithAMLongoCAFriedPAHoganMJCameronIEffects of marijuana on visuospatial working memory: an fMRI study in young adultsPsychopharmacology (Berl)2010210342943820401748

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

MessinisLKyprianidouAMalefakiSPapathanasopoulosPNeuropsychological deficits in long-term frequent cannabis usersNeurology200666573773916534113

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

SolowijNStephensRSRoffmanRAfor Marijuana Treatment Project Research GroupCognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatmentJAMA200228791123113111879109

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

FontesMABollaKICunhaPJCannabis use before age 15 and subsequent executive functioningBr J Psychiatry2011198644244721628706

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BollaKIBrownKEldrethDTateKCadetJLDose-related neurocognitive effects of marijuana useNeurology20025991337134312427880

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

SchweinsburgADSchweinsburgBCCheungEHBrownGGBrownSATapertSFfMRI response to spatial working memory in adolescents with comorbid marijuana and alcohol use disordersDrug Alcohol Depend200579220121016002029

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

SchweinsburgADSchweinsburgBCMedinaKLMcQueenyTBrownSATapertSFThe influence of recency of use on fMRI response during spatial working memory in adolescent marijuana usersJ Psychoactive Drugs201042340141221053763

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

MedinaKLHansonKLSchweinsburgADCohen-ZionMNagelBJTapertSFNeuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: subtle deficits detectable after a month of abstinenceJ Int Neuropsychol Soc200713580782017697412

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BlockRIO’LearyDSHichwaRDEffects of frequent marijuana use on memory-related regional cerebral blood flowPharmacol Biochem Behav2002721–223725011900794

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BattistiRARoodenrysSJohnstoneSJRespondekCHermensDFSolowijNChronic use of cannabis and poor neural efficiency in verbal memory abilityPsychopharmacology (Berl)2010209431933020217055

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

PopeHGJrGruberAJHudsonJICohaneGHuestisMAYurgelun-ToddDEarly-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association?Drug Alcohol Depend200369330331012633916

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

SolowijNJonesKARozmanMEVerbal learning and memory in adolescent cannabis users, alcohol users and non-usersPsychopharmacology (Berl)2011216113114421328041

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

HansonKLWinwardJLSchweinsburgADMedinaKLBrownSATapertSFLongitudinal study of cognition among adolescent marijuana users over three weeks of abstinenceAddict Behav2010351197097620621421

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

AshtariMAvantsBCyckowskiLMedial temporal structures and memory functions in adolescents with heavy cannabis useJ Psychiatr Res20114581055106621296361

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

NestorLRobertsGGaravanHHesterRDeficits in learning and memory: parahippocampal hyperactivity and frontocortical hypoactivity in cannabis usersNeuroimage20084031328133918296071

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

GruberSASagarKADahlgrenMKRacineMLukasSEAge of onset of marijuana use and executive functionPsychol Addict Behav201126349650622103843

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

JagerGBlockRILuijtenMRamseyNFCannabis use and memory brain function in adolescent boys: a cross-sectional multicenter functional magnetic resonance imaging studyJ Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry2010496561572572.e1e320494266

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar