Fish consumption pattern among adults of different ethnics in Peninsular Malaysia

Figures & data

Fig. 1 The household addresses of study subjects plotted throughout Peninsular Malaysia using Quantum GIS 2.8.1.

Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of the subjects

Socio-demographic Variables	Malaysian (n=2,058)	Chinese (n=394)	Indian (n=223)	Overall Total (n=2,675)	*p
Age (year±SD)	42.7±16.2^a	48.1±16.3^b	41.5±15.1^a	43.4±16.2	0.000
Gender (%)
Male	44.5	45.9	37.4	44.2	–
Female	55.4	54.1	62.6	55.7
Body weight (kg±IQR)	62.0±17.9	60.5±16.8	63.9±20.0	62.0±17.5	**0.001
Height (cm±SD)	158.0±8.7^a	160.2±9.1^b	160.3±9.5^b	158.5±8.8	0.000
BMI (±SD)	25.6±5.5^a	24.4±4.9^b	26.4±6.1^c	25.4±5.5	0.000
Household number (±SD)	5.2±2.3^a	4.6±2.4^b	4.9±2.1^c	5.1±2.3	0.000
Marital status (%)
Single	21.1	19.1	19.5	20.6
Married	71.5	73.4	71.4	71.9	–
Widowed/divorced	7.4	7.5	9.1	7.5
Residential region (%)
North	30.4	36.9	50.7	33.0
Middle	25.1	17.0	39.5	25.2
South	16.0	36.6	6.3	18.2
East	28.6	9.4	3.6	23.7	–
Years of education (year±SD)	9.1±3.9^a	8.4±4.1^b	9.1±3.7^a	9.0±3.9	0.004

IQR is the interquartile range. SD is the standard deviation.

*Significant difference (p<0.05) between different ethnics was evaluated using a one-way ANOVA. Equal variance was assumed using LSD.

**^KW A Kruskal–Wallis U test was applied (χ²=13.956).

Different alphabets within the same row indicate significant difference (p<0.05).

Fig. 2 Number of days (in percentages) in which fish was consumed among the adults of different ethnicities from Peninsular Malaysia, using 3-day records of food consumption as a survey method.

Table 2 Fish frequencies from 3-day records of food consumption survey conducted among adults of Peninsular Malaysia (n=2,675)

No.	Local name	English name	^a Species	^bF
Marine fish
1	Kembung/pelaling/mabung/temenung	Indian mackerel	Rastrelliger brachysoma, Rastrelliger faughni, Rastrelliger kanagurta	1,397
2	Ikan bilis	Anchovy	Encrasicholina heteroloba, E. punctifer, S. tri, Stolephorus andhraensis, S. baganensis, S. waitei, S. chinensis, S. commersonnii, S. indicus, S. dubiosus, S. insularis, Lycothrissa crocodile	320
3	Selar kuning/pelata	Scad (yellowtail, yellowstripe, smallmouth)	Selar crumenopthalmus, Selaroides leptolepis, Seriola dumerili, S. leptolepis, Alepes djedaba, A. melanoptera, A. vari, Atule mate, A. apercna	280
4	Tongkol	Kawakawa/Tuna/Bonito	Auxis thazard, Gymnosarda unicolor, Sarda orientalis, Thunnus tonggol, Euthynnus affinis, Katsuwonus pelamis, T. obesus, T. albacares	236
5	Sardine/tamban	Sardines/pilchards	Amblygaster sirm, Spratelloides delicatulus, Sardinella fimbriata, S. gibbosa, Dussumieria acuta, S. albella, S. brachysoma, S. jussieui, S. lemuru, S. melanura, Spratelloides gracilis, S. delicatulus	229
6	Cencaru	Torpedo scad	Megalaspis cordyla	190
7	Selayang	Scad (Indian, shortfin, and mackerel)	Decapterus akaadsi, D. macrosoma, D. maruadsi, D. russelli, D. tabl, D. macarellus, D. kurroides, D. lajang	172
8	Bawal (hitam and putih)	Pomfret (black and silver)	Parastromateus niger, Pampus argenteus, P. chinensis	168
9	Merah	Red Snapper	Lutjanus lemniscatus, L. malabaricus, L. sanguineus, L. sebae, L. argentimaculatus, L. bohar, L. erythropterus, L. bengalensis, L. boutton, L. decussate, L. dodecacantboides	105
10	Tenggiri	King Mackerel	Scomberomorus commerson, S. guttatus, S. lineolatus	105
11	Kerisi	Threadfin bream	Nemipterus virgatus, N. peronii, N. nematophorus, N. japonicus, N. bathybius, N. hexodon, N. marginatus, N. mesoprion, N. nemurus, N. thosaporni, N. nematopus, N. furcosus, N. tambuloides, N. isacanthus, N. bipunctatus, N. vitiensis, N. zysron, N. aurora, N. balinensoides	95
12	Gelama	Croaker	Johnius amblycephalus, J. goldmani, J. weberi, Chrysochir aureu, Nibea soldado, O. cuvieri, Panna microdon, P. anea, J. borneensis, J. coitor, Paranibea semiluctuosa, J. carouna, Pennahia macrocephalus, J. glaucus, P. pawa, J. macrorhynus, Pterotolithus lateoides, P. maculatus, N. albiflora, J. macropterus, J. trachycephalus, Aspericorvina jubata, Kathala axillaris, Daysciaena albida, Otolithoides pama, Atrobucca kyushini, Bahaba polykladiskos, Boesemania microlepis, J. heterolepis	90
13	Mayong/seludu/duri/pelotan	Marine catfish	Nemapteryx caelata, Plicofollis platystomus, Osteogeneiosus militaris, Arius oetik, A. maculates, N. macronotacantha, Arius jella, Picofollis tenuispinis, P. tonggo, A. venosus, N. macronotacantha, Netuma thalassina, P. tenuispinis, A. platystomus, A. subrostratus, Hemarius sona	63
14	Pari	Stingray	Himantura walga, H. lobistoma, Gymnura poecilura, H. bleekeri, Dasyatis kuhlii	60
15	Siakap	Barramundi	Lates calcarifer	46
16	Sembilang	Eel-tailed catfish	Tandanus tandanus, Plotosus canius	29
17	Jenahak	John's snapper	Lutjanus russelli, L. johnii	29
18	Terubuk	Toli shad	Tenualosa toli	20
19	Lolong	Bigeye scad	Selar crumenophthalmus	19
20	Parang	Wolf-Herring	Chirocentrus dorab	19
21	Talang	Queenfish	Scomberoides commersonnianus, S. lysan, S. tala	19
22	Senangin	Indian Salmon	Eleutheronema tetradactylum	18
23	Nyok-nyok	Bigeye trevally	Caranx sexfasciatus	13
24	Belanak	Mullet	Moolgarda cunnesius, Mugil cephalus, Chelon planiceps, C. macrolepis, Valamugil buchanani, C. subviridis, C. melanopterus, Moolgarda, M. seheli engeli, Ellochelon vaigiensis, V. speigleri, Liza subviridis, L. vaigiensis, L. macrolepis, Paramugil parmatus	10
25	Gerut-gerut	Silver Grunter	Pomadasys argenteus, P. argyreus, P. kaakan, P. olivaceus, P. commersonnii, P. maculatus, P. unimaculatus, P. guoraca, P. hasta, P. multimaculatum	8
26	Kurau	Atlantic threadfin	Polydactylus octonemus	7
27	Kekek	Ponyfish	Photopectoralis bindus, Equulites elongates, Leiognathus equulus, Aurigequula fasciata, E. leuciscus, Eubleekeria splendens, L. berbis, S. indicus, Secutor insidiator, Gazza minuta, L. lineolatus, Karalla daura, N. blochii, E. rivulatus, Nuchequula nuchalis, N. gerreoides, L. brevirostris, S. ruconius, G. achlamys, E. stercorarius, L. longispinis	6
28	Selangat	Gizzard shad	Nematalosa come, N. galatheae, N. nasus, Anodontostoma chacunda, A. thailandiae	6
29	Putih, ebek	Diamond trevally	Alectis indica, A. ciliaris	5
30	Yu	Shark	Nebrius ferrugineus, Carcharhinus leucas	5
31	Kerapu	Grouper	Epinephelus sexfasciatus, E. coioides, E. morrhua, Plectropomus maculatus, Grammistes sexlineatus, E. fasciatus, E. cyanopodus, E. ongus, Variola louti, E. areolatus, P. areolatus, E. malabaricus, E. coeruleopunctatus, E. corallicola, Aethaloperca rogaa, Cephalopholis miniata, C. sonnerati, Cromileptes altivelis, E. amblycephalus, E. fasciatomaculosus, E. lanceolatus, E. magniscuttis, E. polyphekadion, E. quoyanus, E. undulosus, V. albimarginata Gracila albomarginata	5
32	Puput	Chinese herring/slender shad	Ilisha elongata	5
33	Sebelah	Halibut	Psettodes erumei, Pseudorhombus malayanus	4
34	Biji Nangka	Yellow goatfish	Upeneus sulphureus	3
35	Belut	Eel	Congresox talabonoides	1
36	Tongsan	Bighead carp	Hypophthalmichthys nobilis	1
37	Salmon	Atlantic Salmon	Salmo salar	1
38	Kacang-kacang	Barracuda	Sphyraena jello	1
39	Jolong	Halfbeaks	Dermogenys pusilla, Hemiramphus achipelagicus, H. far, H. lutkei, N. marginatus, Hyporhamphus dussumieri, H. limbatus, H. quoyi, H. xanthopterus, Rhynchorhamphus georgi, Zenarchopterus dispar, Z. ectuntio, Z. gilli	1
Freshwater fish
1	Keli	Freshwater catfish	Clarias batrachus	77
2	Haruan	Snakehead fish	Channa micropeltes	31
3	Sepat	Gourami	Trichogaster trichopterus, Trichopodus pectoralis	19
4	Patin	Iridescent shark	Pangasius hypophthalmus	17
5	Talapia	Tilapia	Oreochromis mossambicus	13
6	Puyu	Climbing perch	Anabas testudineus	9
7	Sebarau	Hampala	Hampala macrolepidota	7
8	Kelah	Mahseer	Tor tambroides	6
9	Jelawat	Hoven's carp	Leptobarbus hoevenii	3
10	Lampam	Java barb	Barbonymus gonionotus, B. schwanenfeldii	2
11	Baung	Bagrid catfishes	Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus	2
12	Pacu	Pacu	Piaractus mesopotamicus	1
Cephalopods and mollusk
1	Udang	Prawn and shrimp	Penaeus monodon, P. semisulcatus, M. affinis, P. japonicus, Parapenaeopsis sculptilis, M. ensis, Metapenaeus brevicornis, M. barbata, Parapenaeospsis hardwickii, P. merguiensis, P. indicus, Parapenaeospsis hardwickii, P. latisulcatus Kishinouye	298
2	Sotong	Squid and octopus	Loligo uyii, Cistopus indicus, L. chinensis, L. duvauceli, L. edulis, L. sibogue, Sepia esculenta, S. phuruonis	263

^aSpecies names were based on fish landed and/or available at the wholesale market in Peninsular Malaysia (26–28) and at the website: www.fishbase.org/ComNames/CommonNameSearchList.

^bThe frequency of fish obtained from the subjects of the food consumption survey (3-day records). Of the fish consumption records, 40% did not mentioned fish name, and therefore are not included in this list.

Table 3 Frequencies of cooking style obtained from 3-day records of the food consumption survey conducted among adults of Peninsular Malaysia (n=2,675)

No	Cooking styles	Cooking description	^aF
1	Goreng	Deep-fried seafood marinated with salt and turmeric powder.	2,021
2	Masak sambal	Deep-fried seafood cooked in chili, shrimp paste, and tamarind paste. Thick gravy.	521
3	Masak kari	Seafood curry. Cooked with curry powder and coconut milk.	401
4	Masak lemak	Seafood boiled in coconut milk, spices, and flavorings such as lemongrass, basil leaves (Ocimum sanctum), turmeric leaves (Curcuma domestic), and asam gelugur (dried Garcinia atroviridis).	320
5	Masam asam pedas	Seafood cooked with chili, tamarind paste, and other spices and flavorings; kesum leaves (Polygonum minus) and ginger flower (Etlingera elatior). Thin gravy.	309
6	Masak singgang	Seafood boiled with asam gelugur (dried Garcinia atroviridis) and lemongrass.	158
7	Bakar	Grilled (charcoal, flat pan or oven).	148
8	Masak kicap	Deep-fried seafood cook with soy sauce and spices.	144
9	Rebus	Seafood boiled with onion, salt, and asam gelugur (dried Garcinia atroviridis).	67
10	Stim	Fish seasoned with soy sauce, coriander, onion, and other flavorings, cook with steamer.	45
11	Masak masam manis	Deep-fried seafood cooked in a sauce containing sugar, vinegar, or lemon and pineapple (especially of Chinese-style food).	43
12	Masak sos	Deep-fried seafood cooked with chili and tomato sauce.	40
13	Sup	Seafood boiled with soup spices and some flavorings (onion, garlic, ginger, and celery).	27
14	Masak merah	Deep-fried seafood cooked in red spicy tomato sauce other spices and flavorings.	25
15	Masak taucu	Deep-fried seafood cooked with minced bean paste, onion, and vegetables	21
16	Masak Gulai tempoyak	Seafood cooked with fermented durian, chili, and coconut milk.	19
17	Sumbat sambal	Completely dressed fish, which is stuffed with sambal belacan (chili and shrimp paste) and grated coconut before being deep-fried or grilled.	11
18	Masak tiga rasa	Deep-fried fish vinaigrette with sweet, hot and sour gravy, and mixed vegetables.	4
19	Tomyam	Seafood cooked in Thai hot and sour soup. The basic broth is made of stock and fresh ingredients such as lemongrass, kaffir lime leaves, galangal, lime juice, fish sauce, and crushed chili peppers.	2
20	Masak kurma	Seafood cooked with korma powder, coconut milk, yogurt, and other spices and flavorings.	2
21	Masak rendang	Seafood cooked with coconut milk and a paste of mixed ground spices, which includes ginger, galangal, turmeric leaves, lemon grass, garlic, shallot, chilies, and other spices.	1
22	Paprik	Deep-fried seafood cooked in chili paste, oyster sauce, mixed vegetables, spices, and flavorings.	1

^aThe frequency of cooking styles obtained from the subjects of the food consumption survey (3-day records).

Table 4 Seafood consumption (g/person/day) (±IQR)^a among adults of different ethnics in Peninsular Malaysia

	Ethnicity
Food category	Malaysian (n=2,058)	Chinese (n=394)	Indian (n=223)	Total (n=2,675)	χ^2 (p)^f
Marine fish	100±88	110±88	81±89	100±87	5.70 (0.058)
Freshwater fish	105±130	260±374	220	106±130	2.80 (0.242)
Cephalopod	90±70	101±48	80±240	90±70	0.22 (0.896)
Mollusk	41±70	30±96	30±88	40±70	0.84 (0.656)
^bHabitat category
Demersal fish	112±110	100±146	145±171	112±109	1.63 (0.443)
Others	97±81	110±83	82±86	97±80	4.55 (0.103)
^cSeafood category
Indian mackerel	80±57	80±66	110±52	80±66	5.32 (0.070)
Anchovy	22±28	30±33	30±58	24±28	3.43 (0.180)
Scad (Yellowtail, Yelowstripe, and Smallmouth)	100±74	125±127	100±117	108±74	1.04 (0.594)
Kawakawa/Tuna/Bonito,	60±55	120	60	60±55	2.78 (0.249)
Sardines, and Pilchards	43±47	229	41±62	48±56	1.54 (0.463)
Torpedo scad	110±73	100±9	–	100±73	0.08 (0.778)
Scad (Indian, shortfin, and mackerel)	90±61	315	–	92±66	1.49 (0.222)
Pomfret (Black and Silver)	91±84	95±35	60±14	90±60	7.89 (0.019)
Cooking category
Deep fried^d	100±79	85±66	80±72	97±77	6.57 (0.037)
Boiled^e	101±94	110±122	80±77	99±93	7.39 (0.025)
Grilled and Steamed	81±66	68±65	89	80±59	1.99 (0.369)
Intake of seafood per meal
Breakfast	60±50	177±154	75±117	60±51	6.67 (0.036)
Lunch	90±66	80±55	78±50	88±62	15.35 (0.000)
Dinner	93±67	89±87	85±78	91±68	2.91 (0.234)
Total consumption	175±143	152±133	136±141	168±140	16.25 (0.000)

IQR is the interquartile range.

^aThe calculations were based on the 3-day records from Food Consumption Survey conducted throughout Peninsular Malaysia. The portion size of seafood was based on published local data (22–24).

^bClassifications were referred to the publication by the Department of Fisheries Malaysia (27). Others included pelagic, reef-associated, benthopelagic, and bathypelagic.

^cThe list of seafood was based on the most frequently consumed (frequent count >150) (Table 2).

^dDeep-fried fish and any cooking styles that involved the deep-frying of seafood before the addition of gravy and other spices. Examples are masak sambal, masak kicap, masak masam manis, masak sos, masak merah, masak taucu, sumbat sambal, masak tiga rasa and paprik (Table 3).

^eSeafood cooked with various other ingredients, such as spices and flavorings and often containing clear or thick liquid/gravy, with onion, garlic, or other spices stir-fried. Examples are masak kari, masak lemak, masak asam pedas, masak singgang, rebus, sup, masak gulai tempoyak, tomyam, masak kurma, and masak rendang (Table 3).

^fSignificant differences (p<0.05) between different ethnics were evaluated using the Kruskal–Wallis H test.

Table 5 Comparison of seafood consumptions in Peninsular Malaysia with different factors (n=2,675)

No	Factors	n	Median±IQR	χ^2 (p)
1	Ethnic
	Malay	1,694	175±143	^KW16.253 (0.000)
	Chinese	244	153±134
	Indian	172	138±139
2	Age
	18–40 years old	905	160±141	^KW12.17 (0.002)
	41–59 years old	859	174±141
	≥60 years old	368	176±139
3	Gender
	Male	932	174±140	^MW538955 (0.180)
	Female	1,197	164±142
4	BMI
	Normal	881	172±140	^MW365744 (0.588)
	Others	843	167±144
5	Marital status
	Married	1,568	176±142	^MW361617 (0.000)
	Others	539	148±133
6	Residential area by state
	North (Perlis, P. Pinang, Kedah, and Perak)	742	186±145	^KW75.903 (0.000)
	Middle (Selangor, WP Kuala Lumpur, and N. Sembilan)	527	147±126
	South (Melaka and Johor)	325	154±119
	East (Pahang, Terengganu, and Kelantan)	538	182±155
7	Years of Education
	≤6years	636	172±133	^KW19.436 (0.000)
	7–11 years	965	170±142
	≥12 years	299	136±135

^KWThe Kruskal–Wallis and ^MWMann–Whitney U tests were applied.

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