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Abstract
We analyse the emergence of Italy as a fashion country with a reconstruction of the history and impact of the collective fashion shows that Giovanni Battista Giorgini organised in Florence in 1951–1965. Our cultural analysis highlights the role events play in the mobilisation of local actors and the creation of nation brands, which we conceive as ongoing narrations built on a country’s material and symbolic resources that differentiate its image in valuable ways for export markets. Despite their decline, the Florentine shows created an intangible asset that facilitated the ascent of Milan as Italy’s fashion capital in the 1970s.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the guest editors, Patricio Sàiz and Rafael Castro, for their support, and two anonymous referees for their constructive criticism. We are also grateful to the staff of the Florence State Archive and the Costume Gallery Pitti Palace, Florence, for the documental support. A preliminary version of this paper was presented in 2015 during research seminars at the Cass Business School, London, and the Skema Business School, Lille. We are indebted to Professors Fleura Bardhi, Daniel Kjeldgaard, Nil Özçağlar-Toulouse, Davide Ravasi and many others colleagues for the helpful suggestions received on those occasions.
Notes
1. ‘Italian imports. Just like the Chianti.’ Life, 14 April 1952, 89–92: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 5, n. 102.
2. J. Nicholson. 1952 ‘Florence declares fashion war. Paris has a rival.’ Picture Post, 1 March: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 340–342.
3. Merlo and Polese, ‘Turning Fashion’; Paris, ‘Fashion as System’ and Oggetti Cuciti; Pinchera, Moda in Italia; White, Reconstructing Italian Fashion.
4. For business history: Hansen, ‘Networks, Narrative’; Mordhors, ‘Arla and Danish’. For marketing and consumer research: Arnould and Thompson, ‘CCT’ and ‘Consumer Culture Theory’; McCraken, ‘Culture and Consumption’.
5. Thompson and Tian, ‘Counter-memories’.
6. In the post-war period, the US were the only possible market for luxury products such as European fashion. See White, Reconstructing Italian Fashion; Merlo and Polese, ‘Turning Fashion’.
7. Our focus on Giorgini does not imply that we subscribe to the so-called ‘great man theory of history’. However, both journalistic accounts of the period and other works investigating the emergence of Italian fashion tend to focus on Giorgini. We also follow this convention, because, at the beginning of our observation period (1951–1954), Giorgini’s initiatives were frequently criticised for being one man’s private initiatives; it was only with the creation of the Centro di Firenze per la Moda Italiana (Florence Center for Italian fashion, 1954) that he gave the Florentine fashion shows a more formal organisational structure.
8. Belfanti, ‘History as Intangible’ and ‘Renaissance’.
9. Merlo and Polese, ‘Turning Fashion’, 430–438; Segre Reinach, ‘Italian Fashion Revolution’, 65–70.
10. See, among others, Djelic and Ainamo, ‘Coevolution’; Kawamura, Japanese Revolution; Rantisi, ‘Ascendance’; Steele, Paris Fashion and Fashion Italian Style.
11. Khaire, ‘Indian Fashion Industry’, 345–347; Khaire and Hall, ‘Medium and Message’, 846–847.
12. Merlo and Polese, ‘Turning Fashion’; Paris, Oggetti Cuciti; Pouillard, ‘Keeping designs’.
13. Kaneva, ‘Nation branding’.
14. Al-Sulaiti and Baker, ‘Country’; Verlegh and Steenkamp, ‘Country-of-origin’; Dinnie, ‘Country-of-origin 1965–2004’.
15. Hansen, ‘Narrative nature’.
16. See also literature in organisation studies on the strategic uses of the past. For a review of the relevance of this literature for business history, see Foster et al. ‘Strategic use’.
17. Florio, ‘Fairs Trades’.
18. Gopalakrishna and Lilien, ‘Three Stage Model’; Smith, Gopalakrishna and Smith, ‘Complementary Effect’.
19. Borghini, Golfetto and Rinallo, ‘Ongoing Search’; Rinallo, Borghini and Golfetto ‘Exploring Visitor’; Peñaloza, ‘Commodification’.
20. Lampel and Meyer, ‘Field-configuring’.
21. Bathelt, Golfetto and Rinallo, Trade Shows; Bathelt and Schuldt, ‘Luminaries and Meat’; Maskell, Bathelt and Malmberg, ‘Temporary Clusters’; Rinallo, Bathelt and Golfetto, ‘Economic Geography’.
22. Rinallo and Golfetto, ‘Exploring the Knowledge-based’; Bathelt, Golfetto and Rinallo, Trade Shows.
23. Kawamura, Fashion-ology, 83–84.
24. Duggan, ‘Greatest Show’ and Troy, Couture Culture.
25. Kawamura, Fashion-ology, 93.
26. Kawamura, Fashion-ology, 73–76; Steele, Paris Fashion, 104–105 and 115–118.
27. Kawamura, Fashion-ology, 64–66; Steele, Paris Fashion.
28. Troy, Couture Culture.
29. Pouillard, ‘Managing fashion creativity’.
30. The Duce himself was behind the creation of the Ente, whose initial capital was predominantly constituted by the City of Turin together with various other Turinese or Piedmontes organisations representing industrial and commercial interests. Its first president was Silvio Ferraccini, followed in Paolo Ignazio Maria Thaon de Revel, who was at the time Podestà (mayor) of Turin. Vladimiro Rossini, who played an important role in Italian fashion until 1970, was appointed general director of the Ente. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 17–20; Gnoli, Donna, 89–90; Discussione e approvazione del disegno di legge: Costituzione dell’Ente autonomo per la Mostra permanente nazionale della moda in Torino (Discussion and approval of the draft law: Establishment of the Authority for the Permanent National Fashion Exhibition in Turin), Atti Parlamentari. Camera dei Deputati, 6 December 1932, 7502–7509.
31. Gnoli, Donna, 91. The first President of the Ente Nazionale Moda was Giovanni Vianino, who had previously been appointed vice-president of the EAMNPM and, after Thaol de Revel’s resignation, had substituted him as President. Vladimiro Rossini kept hold of the post of general manager for the new Ente.
32. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 269.
33. Capalbo, Storia della moda, 82–86.
34. Ricci, ‘Salvatore Ferragamo’, 13–15.
35. ‘Fine Italian Hand for Shoes.’ Vogue, 15 July 1937.
36. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 98–99.
37. White, Reconstructing Italian Fashion, 12–17; Pinchera, ‘Provvedimenti economici’, 487–489; on the general impact on the Italian economy: Fauri, Piano Marshall e l’Italia.
38. White, Reconstructing Italian Fashion, 39–41; Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 28.
39. Capalbo, Storia della moda, 130; Mannucci, Marchese rampante, 187–188; White, Reconstructing Italian Fashion, 75–83.
40. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 184–185.
41. Ibid., 241–243.
42. After Lora Totino of Cervinia, the Ente was presided over by Filippo Alberto Giordano delle Lanze (1875–1952) and Furio Cicogna (1891–1975), both coming from an industrial background. In 1953, the Ente, which was under the control of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, was put under the administration of an external commissioner: Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 75; Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 249.
43. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 187.
44. Ibid., 189.
45. SNIA Viscosa, founded in 1917, in the 1930s was already a global leader in the artificial and synthetic textile fibre industry. Franco Marinotti became the director and president of SNIA Viscosa in 1939. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 188; Spadoni, Gruppo SNIA.
46. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 188–189.
47. Ibid.
48. Capalbo, Storia della moda, 131; White, Reconstructing Italian Fashion, 136–149.
49. Capalbo, Storia della moda, 142.
50. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 241–243.
51. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 32–33.
52. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 33–34; Belfanti, ‘History as Intangible’, 74–76.
53. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 29–30.
54. ASF, AMIGBG, Album 3, n. 20, Letter 28 December 1950. Originally in Italian, our translation.
55. Vergani, ‘Sala Bianca’, 44–47.
56. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 31.
57. Caratozzolo, ‘Reorienting Fashion’, 51–52; Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 218–231.
58. Paris, ‘Fashion as system’, 534–535.
59. The runway show of Christian Dior’s Autumn/Winter collection 1950–1951 had more than 250 models and lasted about 3 h: ‘Prèmiere de la mode d’automne chez Dior.’ Paris Match, 12 August 1950; Erti. 1951. ‘La moda italiana alla conquista dell’America.’ Grazia, 10 November: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 175.
60. ASF, AMIGBG, Album 3, n. 150; B. Griggs. 1960. ‘Italian fashions on the right lines,’ The Star, 18 January: GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 9, n. 84; N. Salvalaggio. 1961. ‘La moda italiana si impone a Londra.’ Il Giornale d’Italia, 16 January: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 44, n. 161.
61. McCracken, ‘Culture and Consumption’.
62. Among numerous others: C. Snow. 1953. ‘Italian fashion have a real meaning.’ New York Journal, 15 February; C. Snow. 1953. ‘Italian coats and suits feature colorful design.’ New York Journal, 16 February: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 9, n. 9 and 14.
63. Belfanti, ‘History as Intangible’, 84–85.
64. ASF, AMIGBG, Album 20 and GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 6, n. 386–478, in particular n. 471–473 ‘Italy Four Roman beauties, in dresses for the new Italian Collections.’ Vogue, 15 March 1956.
65. ASF, AMIGBG, Ente Italiano Moda 1953–1962, File 1.
66. ASF, AMIGBG, Ente Italiano Moda 1953–1962, File 2; I. Brin. 1955. ‘Il giudizio dei buyers.’ Settimana Incom, 6 August 44: GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 5, n. 360–362; and see the section Italy’s fashion civil war below.
67. ASCCF, Enti di Iniziativa 1933–1962, Box 19 Centro di Firenze per la Moda Italiana 1952–1962, File 3; programmes and reports on the Pitti fashion shows.
68. ASF, AMIGBG, Album 44, n. 61, Report on XXI Presentation and n. 42, Program XXI Italian Fashion Show, 14–20 January 1961; Album 51 n. 62, Report on XXV Presentation, 19–24 January 1963.
69. ASF, AMIGBG, Album 28, n. 62, table on buyer firms’ attendance 1954–1959.
70. Kawamura, Fashion-ology, 89; Khaire and Hall, ‘Medium and Message’; Pouillard, ‘Fashion for All’; White, ‘Italy: Fashion’.
71. Ortoleva, ‘Buying Italian’; Steele, ‘Italian fashion’.
72. Lampel and Meyer, ‘Field-configuring’; Bathelt, Golfetto and Rinallo, Trade Shows; Bathelt and Schuldt, ‘Luminaries and Meat’; Maskell, Bathelt and Malmberg, ‘Temporary Clusters’; Rinallo, Bathelt and Golfetto ‘Economic Geography’.
73. C. Snow. 1953. ‘Italian fashions have a real meaning.’ New York Journal, 15 February: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 9, n. 9.
74. In the 1950s Christian Dior couture house represented more than 50% of the overall French haute couture export, and the overseas sales of Dior products accounted for about two-thirds of his entire business: Okawa, ‘Licensing Practices’, 91.
75. Jones and Pouillard, ‘Christian Dior’, 10–11; Palmer, Dior, 58–61 and 78–82.
76. B.J. Perkins. 1953. ‘Collections opens today in Florence. Boutique, Millinery, Fabric and Accessories lines will be shown at Giorgini’s event.’ Women’s Wear Daily, 22 July; ‘Masters of Fashion From France and Italy.’ The Milwaukee Journal, 8 January 1952, ASF, AMIGBG, Album 4, n. 160; Album 9, n. 109; Palmer, Couture, 176–178.
77. Palmer, Dior, 78–83; ‘Paris, Italian Import Copies Dominate N.Y. Sunday Ads.’ Women’s Wear Daily, 30 September 1954; ‘Italian imports. Just like the Chianti.’ Life, 14 April 1952, 90; ‘Resort Fashions from Italy.’ Women’s Wear Daily, 18 September 1956: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 12, n. 5 and Album 20, n. 101.
78. Italian imports. Just like the Chianti.” Life, 14 April 1952; M. Hall. 1952. ‘N.Y. Rome: our new fashion capital?.’ Post, 12 January; L. Averill. 1952. ‘Originals from the Italian couture seen at luncheon show.’ Los Angeles Times, 19 March 1952: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 4, n. 160 and 170. By the mid-1950s the increasing success of Italian fashion in the American market pushed the low price department stores to reproduce Italian models.
79. C. Snow. 1951. ‘Italy gets dressed up, A big hectic fashion show attracts U.S. style leaders, poses a challenge to Paris.’ Life, 20 August, 104–112; C. Snow. 1951. ‘Italian Designers’ Grand Entrance. The Smart Set.’ New York Journal, 26 August; ‘Italian imports. Just like the Chianti.’ Life, 14 April 1952: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 49 and 50.
80. H. Gaggiottini. 1952. ‘Italians accent simplicity in bid for fashion lead.’ Chicago Daily Tribune, 15 October, and also F. de Santis. 1952. ‘Fashion of Italy today.’ The Hartford Bulletin, 14 December: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 5, n. 160 and Album 1, n. 28.
81. Among others: Babette. 1952. ‘I. Magnin’s presents Italian originals.’ The Examiner, 18 March; L. Averill. 1952. ‘Originals from the Italian couture seen at luncheon show.’ Los Angeles Times, 19 March; D. O’Neill. 1954. ‘Foreign fashions and American copies defy identification at showing in store.’ Times, 17 March; J. Worth. 1954. ‘Low cost copies of chic imports.’ The New York Daily Mirror, 30 March: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 297 and 283 and Album 9, n. 290 and 295.
82. C. Snow. 1952. ‘Hand painted fabrics in spotlight at Italy shows.’ San Francisco Examiner, 15 August: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 453.
83. Spadea. 1952. ‘Fashion jottings from fabulous Italy.’ Times Union, 15 February: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 338, and on the American stereotypes about Italy: Steele, ‘Italian fashion’, 496.
84. C. Snow. 1951. ‘Italian Designers’ Grand Entrance. The Smart Set.’ New York Journal, 26 August.
85. Interview by G.B. Giorgini, ‘Fashion is a wonderful thing.’ St. Louis Dispatch, 6 December 1957: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 22, n. 162; Belfanti, ‘History as Intangible’.
86. C. Snow. 1951. ‘Italy’s artistry lends enchantment to fashion world.’ New York Journal, 27 August: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 51.
87. F. Engle. 1953. ‘Record U.S. turnout seen for Paris openings the fashion markets of Europe will attract a near if not record crowd for the fall couture showings.’ Women’s Wear Daily, 15 July: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 9, n. 106.
88. ‘Italian Collection Notebook.’ Vogue, 15 September 1952: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 5, n. 154.
89. Bathelt, Golfetto and Rinallo, Trade Shows; Rinallo and Golfetto, ‘Exploring the Knowledge-based’.
90. ‘Italy’s fashion industry-still young but challenging Paris.’ Business Week, 15 August 1959; J.W. Cohn. 1960. ‘Italy couture gathers strong buyer support.’ Women’s Wear Daily, 21 January; C. Donovan. 1961. ‘Designer’s fancy turns to thoughts of Romance.’ The New York Times, 16 January: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 28, n. 65; Album 44, n. 67 and GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 9, n. 92.
91. ‘The eye of the beholder.’ The Times, 27 January 1958: GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 7, n. 20.
92. E. Massai. 1961. ‘Italian couture.’ Women’s Wear Daily, 20 January: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 44, n. 63.
93. L. Olivetti. 1958. ‘La moda in cifre.’ La Nazione, 30 December; E. Ferro. 1958. ‘Le cifre delle esportazioni provano lo sviluppo della moda italiana.’ L’Avvenire, 7 January: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 27, n. 181 and 182.
94. Between 1958 and 1963 the average annual growth rate of the Italian leather and clothing sectors was more than 23% (the average annual growth rate of the Italian manufacturing industry was nearing 16%): Gomellini and Pianta, ‘Commercio’, 408 and 412–413.
95. Data reported in J. Troxell Stark. 1960. ‘The Italian influence.’ Look, 5 January, 35; ‘Italy’s fashion industry-still young but challenging Paris.’ Business Week, 15 August 1959: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 30, n. 63.
96. ASF, AMIGBG, Album 28, n. 62, Table of buyer firms’ attendance 1954–1959.
97. I. Brin. 1955. ‘Conservare il posto e il prestigio della moda italiana.’ Bellezza, Marzo: GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 5, n. 253.
98. G.B. Giorgini, typewritten memorandum: ASF, AMIGBG, Ente Italiano Moda 1951–1963.
99. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 62–68.
100. Among others, V. Vaerini. 1953. ‘La moda italiana respinge l’aiuto del Governo.’ La Patria, 2 March; I. Brin. 1953. ‘La moda a Firenze. Una polemica che deve finire.’ Il Giornale d’Italia, 29 July; F. Hammond. 1953. ‘Rome, Florence Battle for Fashion Supremacy.’ Los Angeles Times, 2 August: GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 2, n. 213 and CD-Rom 3, n. 52 and 59.
101. M.J. Harlepp. 1957. ‘Florence: two cities bury the hatchet.’ The Times, 22 July: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 22, n. 94.
102. Marzotto was one of the most important and large Italian wool textile company, with 15,000 employees in 1948. During the early 1950s, the company integrated downstream in the production of ready to wear clothing for men and women. In the 1960s, both Marzotto and SNIA Viscosa were important financial supporters of the Camera Nazionale della Moda: Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 188–195; idem, ‘Fashion as system’, 528–529; Roverato, Casa industriale.
103. V. Vaerini. 1952. ‘Un mondo illusorio e scintillante di cui si misconosce la vita.’ Il Popolo di Roma, 24 February: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 5, n. 170.
104. Capalbo, Storia della moda, 145.
105. Capalbo, Storia della moda, 143–144; V. Lucci. 1953. ‘Le dannose concorrenze di un inutile campanilismo.’ Il Giornale d’Italia, 1 March: ASF, AIMGBG, Ente Italiano Moda 1953–1962.
106. E. della Giovanna. 1953. ‘Il pericoloso successo della moda italiana negli Stati Uniti.’ Il Giornale d’Italia, 18 April: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 9, n. 105.
107. B. Bruce. 1957. ‘A fashionable rivalry.’ The Journal American, 23 July: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 22, n. 103.
108. A. Rizzotti Veronese. 1956. ‘Roma non vuole che Firenze voglia.’ Le Ore, 15 December: GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 6, n. 373–377.
109. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 272 and 294; E. Nasi and F. Ducry Giordano. 1969. ‘Impegno di Torino per la moda italiana.’ Torino, January/February, no 1, 50–55.
110. ASCCF, Enti di iniziativa 1933–1962, Box 19 Centro di Firenze per la moda italiana 1952–1962, Files 2–3-4.
111. Ibid., File 5.
112. Ibid.
113. On the debate about the numerous fashion centres in Italy: M. Gobessi. 1956. ‘La pianificazione della moda.’ Cronaca Italiana, 28 July: GCPP, AG, CD-Rom 6, n. 225; E. Robiola. 1960. ‘Troppi centri di moda in Italia?.’ Bellezza, September: ASF, AIMGBG, Ente Italiano Moda 1953–1962.
114. Speech by E. Savio to the Minister of Industry and Trade E. Colombo, Atti Parlamentari. Camera dei Deputati, 27 October 1961, 25,713–25,714.
115. Letter from G.B. Giorgini to Irene Brin, 18 April 1962: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 48, n. 228.
116. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 231–240 and 459–463.
117. Letter from G.B. Giorgini to Fay Hammond, 1 December 1964: ASF, AMIGBG, Correspondence 13 1962–1969, Correspondence designers’ defection 1964–1968; E. Robiola. 1965. ‘Nuvole nere su una moda rosa.’ Il Tempo, 10 February; I. Brin. 1965. ‘Moda braccio di ferro.’ Il Giornale d’Italia, 10 June: Album 57, n. 92 and Album 58, n. 219.
118. Letters from Jole Veneziani to G.B. Giorgini, 24 April 1965, and from Olga di Grésy to G.B. Giorgini, 11 May 1965: ASF, AMIGBG Correspondence 13 1962–1969, Correspondence designers’ defection 1964–1968.
119. Letter from G.B. Giorgini to Olga di Grésy, 18 May 1965: ASF, AMIGBG Correspondence 13 1962–1969, Correspondence designers’ defection 1964–1968; L. Griffo. 1965. ‘Roma contro Firenze. Inasprita la polemica sulla moda.’ La Nazione, 24 April; ‘Riunione al Centro della Moda.’ La Nazione, 23 April 1965: Album 58, n. 95 and 96.
120. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 42–43.
121. ASF, AMIGBG, Camera Nazionale della Moda 1963–1970; Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 240.
122. Pinchera, Moda in Italia, 315–319 and 328–336.
123. Paris, Oggetti Cuciti, 484–494; Merlo and Polese, ‘Turning Fashion’, 431–434; Segre Reinach, ‘Italian Fashion Revolution’, 65–70.
124. Stanfill, ‘Introduction’, 15.
125. H. Carlton. 1951. ‘Designers flock to Florence for three day fashion show.’ New York Herald Tribune, 21 July: ASF, AMIGBG, Album 1, n. 31.
126. ‘Italian ready-to-wear in its 25th year,’ Women’s Wear Daily, 1 October 1976: 19–20; Merlo and Polese, ‘Turning Fashion’, 415–416.