Moulding clay, making gold. Credit, labour and demand in ceramic businesses in late medieval Barcelona

Abstract

This article explores a group of ceramic businesses established in the city of Barcelona in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The main source analysed is an extraordinary book of debts, belonging to the plate maker (escudeller) Nicolau Reiner, known among historians as the Llibre de les fornades (Book of Batches). A comprehensive study of its 1,069 accounting entries makes it possible to shed light on the recourse to informal credit among the professionals in the sector, the work in the workshops, and the commercialisation of the items manufactured. The article argues that the acquisition of loans and the hierarchisation of small family businesses through indebtedness were fundamental resources for the ceramic industry of the time, in order to meet the growing demand for consumer goods in this material.

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Keywords:

• Credit
• labour
• ceramics
• pottery
• production
• accounting
• family business
• ceramic consumption
• ceramic trade

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Arxiu Capitular de Barcelona, Extravagants, Llibre de Comptes de Nicolau Reiner, 1514-1519 (ACB-E-LlCNR from hereon).

2 Some examples: ‘Deu lo senyor en Jauma Marsser, garer, segons se mostra per manut en lo libra dels deutes’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 64v). ‘Deg-li al dit mon compara, lo senyor en Johan Moret, garer, tot lo que diu en los albarans e fets al seu libra’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 62r). Another similar case in ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 63v.

3 One example among many: ‘Deu lo senyor en Nofra Sagara, escudeller, vam vanir a comta ell e yo a 21 dell mes de march 1515, ell ma davia 14 L 4 S 7, e yo li devia de la fornada, buydà a 19 de dit mes, 10 L 16 S 4. Resta deu 3 L 8 S 3’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 4v).

4 ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 59v-60r. The involvement of Constança and other women with these ceramic businesses is studied in Almenar Fernández, 2023.

5 The monetary system used by the record is the Barcelona pound (lliura) (1 lliura = 20 sous = 240 diners). It also refers to the ducat d’or (24 sous) and the rayall (2 sous).

6 A quartera of wheat cost in those years 17 sous in Barcelona (Feliu, 1991, vol. I, p. 37). The quartera was the equivalent of 69.518 liters (Feliu, 1991, vol. 1, p. 18). The daily wage of a stonemason’s laborer would have been 3 sous (Feliu, 1991, vol. II, p. 104).

7 ‘Ítem, li doní lo dia que socararen mossèn Palau Dàries, 6 raylas (sic)’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 39r). ‘Ítem, li donà ma muler disabta morí ma naboda, 2 S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 86r).

8 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 2v, 61v.

9 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 8v, 62v.

10 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 62v, 71v.

11 Some cases: ‘Ítem, doní a·n Marqués lo vell per 2 dotzenes de tera, V S’. ‘Ítem, doní a mestra Jauma per picar 22 oles, I S’. Both entries were debited to Nofre Segarra. ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 3v.

12 ‘Ítem, li prestí per a farina a 5 de setebra (sic) 1514, VI S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 8v). ‘Ítem, li donà ma muler com yo no hera II rayals [e] un forch d’als per 6 dinés’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 91r). ‘Ítem, dit dia demondit prés tres dinés de hous’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 61v). ‘Ítem, doní al Rog, tiratera, com era mallaltz, quotra sous’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 83r). ‘Ítem, li prestí la vagilia de Sent Lop per madasines, IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 8v). ‘Ítem, doní a Nofra Espellta per lo loger de l’obrador, I L II S 6 (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 33v). ‘Ítem, li doní per sotarar sa filla, la Panra, VI S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 8v).

13 The Prats family seem to have been brick makers in the early fifteenth century. See Riu de Martín, 2009-2010, p. 289.

14 ‘Ítem, doní a·n Marqués lo vell per 2 dotzenes de tera, V S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 3v). ‘Ítem, doní a·n Marqués per tera, IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 28r). ‘Ítem, he donat a·n Rafell Marqués per 2 dotzenes de tera, VIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 28v). Other examples in ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 9r, 33r, 79v.

15 ‘Ítem, doní dit dia al [h]om d’en Paralada per tera, VIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 32v). ‘Ítem, li prestí per a tera per en Paralada, I S IIII (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 29v). Another example in ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 91r.

16 ‘Ítem, li doní per comprar la tera d’en Monzoliu, XII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 38r).

17 ‘[…] ha despesos los dinés li doní per tera e prés 5 corteres de tera bona e, de l’altra, 3 corteres, III S VIIII’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 3v).

18 The fogatjament of 1516 identifies 6 tiraterres (Ainaud de Lasarte, 1942, p. 93), whereas that of 1496 only identifies three, Domingo, Bernat and En Vila (Sales i Favà, 2021, p. 178).

19 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 27v, 85r.

20 ‘Ítem, doní al Rog, tiratera, com era mallaltz, quotra sous’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 83r).

21 ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 86r.

22 ‘Ítem, li donà ma muler per a farar les mules de la senyora Torrent, VI D’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 28v).

23 ‘Ítem, deu més lo senyor en Jauma Marser, li lexí CL garbons, el matex m·o a torgat que valen 6 S 6 diners’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 64v).

24 ‘Ítem, més li doní per pagar lo varnís de Madó Monera, 5 ducats’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 47r). ‘Ítem, per un cafís de varnís d’en Tores (…)’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 63v). ‘Deu en Johan Monzoliu, comtarem ell e yo la fornada buydà al forn de na Monera a 27 del mes de mag 1519, és ma tornador XXIIII L’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 47v).

25 ‘Ítem, tera per lo varnís, 6 S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 29r). ‘Ítem, per a sall per lo varnís, 1 S 6 D’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 29r).

26 ‘Deu en Johan Monzoliu, comtaren a 9 de setebra (sic) 1518, hell pagat de tot a dit dia lo prestí per a portar lo varnís del molí e molra dit varnís, per tot, XII S (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 33v).

27 ‘Ítem, li prestí per a portar lo varnís del [clot], 12 S 9’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 28v). ‘Ítem, per molra lo varnís e aportar al clot e del clot a casa, 16 S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 29r). With regard to ceramic items for storing glaze, the debts corresponded to pieces that had been delivered to the ceramists with the product already prepared, noting their value as another loan: ‘Ítem, doní I dotzena d’oles enfanzines aví de senseres per a varnís e cinquenes, 2 S 3 D (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 34v). Other examples in ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 38r and ACB-E-LlCNR loose document 2v.

28 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 88v, 90v.

29 Reiner’s formula specifies that, for a batch of gilt, three ounces of vermilion, three ounces of iron oxide, a pound of red ocher, four canons of sulfur and two reals of silver were necessary. ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 0r.

30 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 71v, 73v.

31 ‘Ítem, doní al mosso d’en Monzoliu per a Nofra, II S’. (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 33v). ‘Ítem, donà hobra a la mia mossa, na Esparanssa, per 8 S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 57r). ‘Ítem, prés la mosa de Mosèn Satores, V S VI’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol 84v). ‘Ítem, li donà ma muler la vagilia de Sent Bartomeu a la mosa de son sogra, 2 rayalls’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 33r).

32 ‘Ítem, doní al moso per safra, IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 37r).

33 ‘Ítem, doní al mosso d’en Monzoliu per a Nofra, II S’. ‘Ítem, doní al mosso d’en Monzoliu per a Pau’, XVI S (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 33v).

34 ‘Ítem, donà hobra a la mia mossa, na Esparanssa, per 8 S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 57r).

35 ‘Ítem, prés la mossa del senyor en [Sitli] una gera per V S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 74v).

36 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 59v-60r.

37 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 26v-27r, 91r.

38 ‘Deg-li a dit mon compara, donà a mon cuyat, senyor en Safont (…)’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 57r). See also ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 4v.

39 ‘Ítem, li prestí an Banet, son fill, VI S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 79v).

40 The escudeller Joan Guimerà Montsoliu worked in this workshop. Nicolau Reiner paid the rent on behalf of Joan: ‘Ítem, pagí an Pere Reyner per la miga anyada de l’obrador segons diu l’anbarà, és per tot IIII L IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 27v).

41 References to the gilding kiln in ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 37r, 45v, 47v.

42 ‘Ítem, per anfornar e coura, V S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 30r). ‘Deg a Monzoliu e an Nofra, han pitat daurat a raó de 1 S 8 la grossa (…)’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 34r). ‘Primo, li tenia a dar del daurat de pintar (…)’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 3v). ‘Deg-li II forns de daurat, X S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 28r). Other examples in ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 34r, 46v, 47v.

43 ‘Ítem, doní a Miró com enfornava lo forn del daurat, IIII S (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 47v).

44 ‘Ítem, més ha feta la hobra desosdita lo senyor en Johan Pahul, escudeler, a l’obrador d’en Nofra Espellta’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, loose document 3r). ‘Deu en Johan Monzoliu, comtarem ell e yo la fornada buydà al forn de na Monera a 27 del mes de mag 1519, és ma tornador XXIIII L’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 47v).

45 Here is an example of a batch from Nofre Segarra: ‘Ítem, més me donà hobra de tea (sic) a 10 de març 1514, 4 L 15 S 9, e més 15 de pinsell foradat e de girapex molt dolent. Tota la hobra no vall 6 dinés’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 1r).

46 1 gross (grossa) = 12 dozen = 144 pieces.

47 ACB-E-LlCNR, fols. 0v, 3r, 71v.

48 ‘Ítem, prés ell matex ab un moso del bisba de Miquimensa, una hola per I S (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 59r). ‘Ítem, li doní hobra a·n mossèn Satores, IIII S I’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 88r).

49 ‘Ítem, li donà ma muler com yo hera en Hurgell e a Falcet segons ell matex diu, 5 L’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 35v). ‘Ítem, donà ma muler com era a Vilanova, I L IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 33v). ‘Ítem, com yo hera a la Vilanova, V S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 29r).

50 For example: ‘Ítem, per 11 cafissos de gleva de Falset, II L’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 88v). Another case in ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 90v.

51 ‘Ítem, li donà ma muler com yo hera defora (…)’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 36v). ‘Ítem, li doní com fuy vangut, I L IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 90v). ‘Ítem, li donà ma muler com yo no hera, II rayals’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 91r). See also Almenar Fernández, 2023.

52 ‘Ítem, li prestí lo dia s’enbarquà 3 rayals’. ‘Ítem, prengí lo dia que s’enbarquà 3 covens de girat, I L XVI S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 73v). ‘Ítem, ma dat com és vangut de Malorqua 4 ducats e un cova de girat e un cova de comú e 9 panaderes e 6 graxeres de corter, diu que leva 23 S 4, és per tot V L XVIIII S IIII’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 74r).

53 ‘Ítem, per la hobra vané per a la volta de Valènsia yo·y fuy al estibar, IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 72v). ‘Ítem, per la hobra vané per a València, IIII S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 73v).

54 ‘Dalmau sotz kalendari de quatre de març Mil Cinchcents i set ab lo qual dit Dalmau […] se és fet debitor al dit Reyner de vinthinou liures set sous de les quals li paguà en dues partides, ço és, sobre lo monestir de Montserrat’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 66v).

55 ‘Ítem, li doní per anar a Monsarat, [I L XVI S]’, (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 38v). ‘Ítem, li doní per anar a Monsarat, I L XVI S’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, fol. 46v).

56 ‘Ítem, per CC garbons del boter devant les cases de Monsarat, VIIIS’ (ACB-E-LlCNR, loose document 2v).

Additional information

Funding

The author is part of the following research projects: ‘Mercados, instituciones e integración económica en el Mediterráneo occidental (siglos XIII-XVI)’ [PID2021-128038NB-I00], ‘Rompiendo jerarquías. Movilidad social, dinamismo económico y desarrollo institucional en la Europa Mediterránea (siglos XIII-XVI)’ (Prometeo CIPROM/2022/46), and ‘Pacto, negociación y conflicto en la cultura política castellana’ [PID2020-113794GB-I00].

Notes on contributors

Luis Almenar Fernández

Luis Almenar Fernández is an Assistant Professor in Medieval History at Universidad Complutense de Madrid. He has been a researcher at the universities of Valencia, Zaragoza, Perpignan-Via Domitia and Cambridge (UK). His research focuses on consumption, material culture and living standards in the late medieval Crown of Aragon (modern Eastern Spain), with a particular interest in developing industries in the period such as ceramics and glassware.