Rethinking Taiwanese nationality and subjectivity: implications from language issues in colonial Taiwan in the 1920s

Abstract

This historical study reflects on history curriculum debates over the last 20 years in Taiwan. To open up possibilities for contemporary Taiwanese to rethink themselves in terms of national culture and subjectivity, this paper explores the construction of Taiwanese subjectivity in the past. It focuses on the history of Taiwan under Japanese occupation as a key issue in history curriculum debates. Particularly, it examines language issues in the 1920s, an important theme in the histories of the formation of Taiwanese consciousness, ideology, and cultural nationalism during the Japanese colonial period. Rather than addressing issues of identity (national or cultural), identifying who Taiwanese really were, or looking for Chinese or Taiwanese consciousness, this study explores how meanings of “Taiwanese” in the 1920s under Japanese occupation were constructed in the discourse of language reform for civilisation. The analysis of the New Culture Movement discourse suggests that the classical Chinese language of Hànwén as a valuable cultural resource and flexible linguistic instrument played an essential role in constituting Taiwanese subjectivities that shaped Taiwanese practices of the self for distinctive civilisation.

Keywords:

• History of Taiwan
• language policy and issues
• subjectivity
• history curriculum

Acknowledgements

This work is developed from the author’s dissertation. The author would like to thank her advisor, Dr Lynn Fendler, and two anonymous reviewers for valuable advice and comments.

Notes

¹ My translation. Jiǎng Wèishuǐ’s allegation in response to accusation of his violating the “Security Police Law”. See “Jiǎng Wèishuǐ’s Allegation,” Taiwan min pao [The people’s newspaper of Taiwan], 2, no. 16 (1924 [1973]). Reprinted in Yè Róngzhōng, Rìjù xià Taiwan zhèngzhì shèhuì yùndòng shǐ, shàng [History of political and social movement in Taiwan under Japanese rule, vol. 1] (Tai-chung Shì: Chénxīng chūbǎn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, 2000), 266–9. All sources of the series of Taiwan min pao, including Taiwan qīngnián [The Taiwan youth], Taiwan, and Taiwan hsin min pao [Taiwan new min pao] for this study refer to the reprinted edition by Dōngfāng wénhuà shūjú [The oriental cultural service] in Taipei in 1973.

² Michel Foucault, “Nietzsche, Genealogy, History,” in The Essential Foucault: Selections from the Essential Works of Foucault, 1954–1984, ed. Paul Rabinow and Nikolas Rose (New York: The New Press, 2003): 351–369.

³ See, for example, Wang Fu-chang’s analysis of the Meet Taiwan textbook issues. Wang Fu-chang, “Mín zú xiǎng xiàng, zú qún yì shí yǔ lì shǐ: rèn shí tái wān jiāo kē shū zhēng yì fēng bō de nèi róng yǔ mài luò fèn xī” [National imagination, ethnic consciousness and history: an analysis of meet taiwan textbook disputes], Tái wān shǐ yán jiū [Taiwan historical research] 8, no. 2 (2001): 145–208.

⁴ For example, Hsiao A-chin, Contemporary Taiwanese Cultural Nationalism (New York: Routledge, 2000); Wu Rwei-ren, “Fú ěr mó shā yì shí xíng tài: shì lùn rì běn zhí mín tǒng zhì xià tái wān mín zú yùn dòng ‘mín zú wén huà’ lùn shù de xíng chéng (1919–1937)” [Formosan ideology: an analysis of the formation of ‘national culture’ discourse in the Taiwanese national movement under Japanese occupation, 1919–1937], Xīn shǐ xué [New history] 17, no. 2 (2006): 127–218.

⁵ Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, trans. R. Hurley (New York: Random House, 1978); The Use of Pleasure, vol. 2 of The History of Sexuality, trans. R. Hurley (New York: Random House, 1990 [1984]); The Care of the Self, vol. 3 of The History of Sexuality, trans. R. Hurley (New York: Random House, 1988 [1984]).

⁶ Foucault, The Use of Pleasure, and see Lynn Fendler, Michel Foucault, vol. 22 of Continuum Library of Educational Thought, ed. Richard Bailey (London: Continuum Press, 2010), 55–6.

⁷ Michel Foucault, “Technologies of the Self,” in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther H. Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), 16–49.

⁸ Ibid., 18.

⁹ Mark Kelly, “Foucault, Subjectivity, and Technologies of the Self,” in A Companion to Foucault, ed. Christopher Falzon, Timothy O’Leary, and Jana Sawicki (Chichester: Blackwell, 2013), 510–25.

¹⁰ Hsu Pei-Hsien, Tàiyángqí xià de mófǎ xuéxiào: Rìzhi Taiwan xīnshì jiàoyù de dànshēng [The magic school under the flag of the sun: the birth of modern schooling in colonial Taiwan] (Xīnbéi Shì: Dōngcūn, 2012), 62–75. Hsu Chi-tun, Taiwan yǔ gàilùn [Introduction to Taiwanese languages] (Kaohsiung Shì: Taiwan yǔwén yánjiù fāzhǎn jījīn huì, 1990), 51. Yang Yung-bin, “Rìběn lǐngTái chūchí Rì Tái guānshēn shīwén chànghè” [Poetry singing along together by Japanese officials and Taiwanese elites at the early stage of Japanese colonisation], Taiwan chóngcéng jìndàihuà lùnwén ji [Conference proceedings on multi-layered modernity of Taiwan], ed. Wakabayashi Masahiro and Wu Mi-Cha (Táiběi Shì: Bōzhòngzhě wénhuà yǒuxiàn gōngsī, 2000), 105–81.

¹¹ Yè Róngzhōng, Rìjù xià Taiwan zhèngzhì shèhuì yùndòng shǐ, shàng [History of political and social movements in Taiwan under Japanese rule, vol. 1] (Tai-chung Shì: Chénxīng chūbǎn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, 2000), 98–99. Yè Róngzhōng, who was one of the intellectuals in Japan, described the impact of a series of world events on him, including the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the March First Independence Movement in Korea in 1919, Sakuzō Yoshino’s political thought of democracy during Japan’s Taishō period, and worldwide national movements of self-determination, and autonomy, and so on. The same period also included the Russian Revolutions and World War I. For Sakuzō Yoshino’s political thought of democracy, see Li Yung-chih, Rìběn jìndài shǐ yánjiù [A study of the modern history of Japan] (Táiběi Xiàn: Dàohé chūbǎnshè, Mínguó 81 [1992]), 281–319.

¹² Lín Xiàntáng, “Zhù Taiwan qīngnián zázhì zhī fākān [Congratulations on the publication of The Taiwan Youth magazine],” Taiwan qīngnián [The Taiwan youth] 1, no. 1 (1920 [1973]): 3.

¹³ The Chinese Báihuàwén (literally white speech script), which was the written Chinese language based on everyday spoken language, was introduced from China to Taiwan as a model of an easier Hànwén.

¹⁴ See, for example, Jiǎng Wèishuǐ, “Striking Morning Bell and Evening Drum,” Taiwan min pao 3, no. 1 (1973 [1925]): 24–5; Yè Róngzhōng, Rìjù xià Taiwan zhèngzhì shèhuì yùndòng shǐ, xià, 613; Wú, Zhuóliú, Límíng qián de Taiwan [Taiwan before dawn], ed. Zhāng Liángzé (Táiběi Shì: Yuǎnxíng chūbǎnshè, Mínguó 66 [1977]), 1.

¹⁵ “Taiwan Cultural Association Bulletin,” Taiwan min pao 2, no. 19 (1924 [1973]): 12–13.

¹⁶ “Hànxué fùxīng zhi qiánqū” [The pioneer of restoring Classical Chinese], Taiwan min pao 2, no. 1 (1924 [1973]): 12–13.

¹⁷ Ibid., my translation.

¹⁸ My translation. See, for example, “Hànwén zēnshè de yùndòng” [The addition of Classical Chinese language], Taiwan min pao 3, no. 1 (1925 [1973]): 4; “Gōngxuéxiào de Hànwén jiāoshòu hé jiùshì de Taiwan shūfáng” [The teaching of Hànwén in common schools and traditional Taiwanese private schools], Taiwan min pao, no. 147 (1927 [1973]): 3–4.

¹⁹ My translation, emphasis added. “Hànwén jiàoyù” [Classical Chinese education], Taiwan min pao 2, no. 1 (1924 [1973]): 12–13.

²⁰ See Chén Duānmín, “Rìyòngwén gǔchuīlùn” [On promotion of a daily language], Taiwan qīngnián 3, no. 6 (1921 [1973]): 31–34 ; Huang Chéngcōng, “Lùn pǔjí Báihuàwén de xīnshǐmìng” [On the new mission of popularising colloquial Chinese], Taiwan 4th year, no. 1 (1923 [1973]): 12–24; Huáng Cháoqín, “Hànwén gǎigélùn (shàng)” [On the reform of Classical Chinese], Taiwan 4th year, no. 1 (1923 [1973]): 25–31; Huáng Cháoqín, “Xù Hànwén gǎigélùn: Chàngshè Báihuàwén jiǎngxíhuì” [Revisiting the reform of Classical Chinese: promotion of the colloquial Chinese education], Taiwan 4th year, no. 2 (1923 [1973]): 25–31. The sources above were reprinted in Li Nan-heng, ed., Wénxiàn zīliào xuǎnjí [Anthology of archival sources]. Rìjùxià Taiwan xīnwénxué shǐ, míngjí 5 [History of Taiwan new literature under Japanese rule, Míng Collection 5] (Táiběi Shì: Míngtán chūbǎnshè, Mínguó 68 [1979]).

²¹ Ibid.

²² Ibid.

²³ The classical Chinese language was Hànwén, or Gǔwén/Wényánwén. For the Chinese New Culture Movement, see Chén Xīn, “Wénxué yǔ zhíwù” [Literature and duty], Taiwan qīngnián 1, no. 1 (1920 [1973]): 41–3; Chén Duānmín, “Rìyòngwén gǔchuīlùn” [On promotion of a daily language], Taiwan qīngniá; Huang Chéngcōng, “Lùn pǔjí Báihuàwén de xīnshǐmìng [On the new mission of popularising colloquial Chinese]”; Huáng Cháoqín, “Hànwén gǎigélùn (shàng)”; Huáng Cháoqín, “Xù Hànwén gǎigélùn: Chàngshè Báihuàwén jiǎngxíhuì.”

²⁴ My translation, emphasis added. Huang Chéngcōng, “Lùn pǔjí Báihuàwén de xīnshǐmìng.” It is important to note that at that time, there was no standard Báihuàwén or Chinese national language. The national language movement in China was still in progress. It was a concerted effort by the whole nation spanning over 30 years before World War II. All provinces worked together in unifying pronunciations, syllables, and characters, and selecting phonetic symbols (Chuyin Fuhao). Multiple revisions were made before the national language was promoted all over the mainland by 1937. See Shìjiè Huáyǔwén jiàoyùhuì [World Chinese Language Education Association], ed., Guóyǔ yùndòng bǎinián shǐluè: Zūnzhòng zúqún fāngyán chuàngzào guóyǔ qíjī [A concise history of national language movement over 100 years: respect for ethnic languages and creation of a miracle of the national language] (Táiběi Shì: Guóyǔ rìbào, 2012).

²⁵ Chén Duānmín, “Rìyòngwén gǔchuīlùn,” Taiwan qīngnián; Huang Chéngcōng, “Lùn pǔjí Báihuàwén de xīnshǐmìng”; Huáng Cháoqín, “Hànwén gǎigélùn (shàng)”; Huáng Cháoqín, “Xù Hànwén gǎigélùn: Chàngshè Báihuàwén jiǎngxíhuì.”

²⁶ My translation, emphasis added. “Chàng shè Báihuàwén yánjiù huì,” Taiwan min pao 1, no. 1 (1923 [1973]): 29.

²⁷ For example, Lǔ Xùn, A Q zhèngzhuàn [The true story of Ah Q], which was a well-known sarcastic novel that criticised Chinese national characteristics and traditional Chinese society. See Taiwan min pao nos. 81–85 (1925 [1973]), 87 and 91 (1926 [1973]). Hu Shih imitated Henry Johan Ibsen and wrote the one-act play comedy in Báihuàwén, Zhōngshēn dàshì [Marriage]. See Taiwan min pao 1, nos. 1&2 (1923 [1973]).

²⁸ Xiùhú, “Zhōngguó xīnwénxué yùndòng de guòqù xiànzài hé jiānglái” [China’s new culture movement: past, present, and future], Taiwan min pao 1, no. 4 (1923 [1973]): 3–4.

²⁹ Shī Wénqǐ, “Duìyú Taiwanrén zuòde Báihuàwén de wǒjiàn – Taiwanrén de yánjiù Báihuàwén zhě zhùyì – Taiwanrén de tóu mínbào zhě zhùyì” [My opinion on the Báihuàwén written by Taiwanese: attention, Taiwanese who study Báihuàwén and Taiwanese contributors to Taiwan min pao], Taiwan min pao 2, no. 4 (1924 [1973]): 8. See also Li Nan-heng, ed., Wénxiàn zīliào xuǎnjí [Anthology of archival sources], 52–4.

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ See, for example, Lín Xióngxiáng, “Wǒ duì Hànwén de gǎnxiǎng [My reflection on Hànwén],” in Taiwan shīhuì (shàng cè) [Anthology of Taiwanese poetry, vol. 1], ed. Lián Héng (1924; repr., Táiběi Shì: Chéngwén fāxíng, Mínguó 66 (1977)), 781–6; Táng, “Yúmò” [Remnant ink], Taiwan shīhuì (xià cè) [Anthology of Taiwanese poetry, vol. 2], 297. Comments on bāihuà writings in Qiánfēi, “Taiwan min pao zěmeyàng búyòng Wényánwén ne?” [Why does Taiwan min pao not use Classical Chinese?], Taiwan min pao 2, no. 22 (1924 [1973]): 14–16.

³² The complaints were described by Qiánfēi in “Taiwan min pao zěmeyàng búyòng Wényánwén ne?”

³³ Lín Xióngxiáng explained that Hànwén per se was not a problem. He pointed out one of the problems was that Taiwanese had not learned and written Hànwén in the correct way. See Lín Xióngxiáng, “Wǒ duì Hànwén de gǎnxiǎng” [My reflection on Hànwén], in Taiwan shīhuì (shàng cè) [Anthology of Taiwanese poetry, vol. 1], 781–6. Lin Hui-chen advocated the study of Hànwén and suggested more effective approaches to learning Hànwén. See Lin Hui-chen, “Yánjiù Hànwén zhī xīndé” [Reflections on studying Hànwén], Taiwan min pao no. 92 (1926 [1973]): 100–11.

³⁴ Táng, “Yúmò” [Remnant ink], in Taiwan shīhuì (xià cè) [Anthology of Taiwanese poetry, vol. 2], 297.

³⁵ My translation. Qiánfēi, “Taiwan min pao zěmeyàng búyòng Wényánwén ne?”

³⁶ Taiwan shīhuì consisted of two volumes of classical Hàn poetry and was edited by the Taiwanese traditional intellectual, Lián Yǎtáng, and published in 1924–25.

³⁷ Taiwan shīhuì (shàng, xià cè) [Anthology of Taiwanese poetry, vols 1 & 2].