Vitamin D and COVID-19: where are we now?

ABSTRACT

The pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has triggered great interest in the search for the pathophysiological mechanisms of COVID-19 and its associated hyperinflammatory state. The presence of prognostic factors such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, obesity, and age influence the expression of the disease’s clinical severity. Other elements, such as 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D3) concentrations, are currently being studied. Various studies, mostly observational, have sought to demonstrate whether there is truly a relationship between 25(OH)D3 levels and the acquisition and/or severity of the disease. The objective of this study was to carry out a review of the current data that associate vitamin D status with the acquisition, evolution, and/or severity of infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus and to assess whether prevention through vitamin D supplementation can prevent infection and/or improve the evolution once acquired. Vitamin D system has an immunomodulatory function and plays a significant role in various bacterial and viral infections. The immune function of vitamin D is explained in part by the presence of its receptor (VDR) and its activating enzyme 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase (CYP27B1) in immune cells. The vitamin D, VDR, and Retinoid X Receptor complex allows the transcription of genes with antimicrobial activities, such as cathelicidins and defensins. COVID-19 characteristically presents a marked hyperimmune state, with the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β. Thus, there are biological factors linking vitamin D to the cytokine storm, which can herald some of the most severe consequences of COVID-19, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome. Hypovitaminosis D is widespread worldwide, so the prevention of COVID-19 through vitamin D supplementation is being considered as a possible therapeutic strategy easy to implement. However, more-quality studies and well-designed randomized clinical trials are needed to address this relevant question.

KEYWORDS:

• Vitamin D
• 25-hydroxyvitamin D
• vitamin D receptor (VDR)
• 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase (CYP27B1)
• SARS-CoV-2
• COVID-19

Disclosure statement

The authors have no relevant conflicts of interest to disclose. Peer reviewers on this manuscript have no relevant financial or other relationships to disclose.

Additional information

Funding

This research was funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III grants (PI18-00803 and PI18-01235), co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) and by Junta de Andalucía grant (PI-0268-2019). In addition, V. C-B and C.G-F are funded by postdoctoral fellowships from the Junta de Andalucía and Instituto de Salud Carlos III respectively (RH-0141-2020; CD20/00022)