Was Jerusalem a fortified stronghold in the Middle Bronze Age? — an alternative view

Abstract

Segments of massive walls identified as city walls dated to the Middle Bronze II (MB II) period were uncovered on the eastern slope of the City of David by Kathleen Kenyon, and later by Yigal Shiloh. A massive fortifications complex was uncovered in the area of the Gihon Spring by Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron, this too was dated to the MB II period. New analysis of the data from all three excavation projects possibly indicates that these fortifications date to the Iron II B–C period, to the 8th–7th centuries BC, rather than the MB II. This suggestion cannot be conclusively proven and it is presented here as an alternative concept to the current, generally accepted one. If that is so MB II Jerusalem was an unfortified settlement. The ‘Cyclopean' city wall in Tell Rumeidah/ancient Hebron, usually dated to the MB II is discussed at the end of the paper. It is argued that this wall too possibly dates to Iron II B–C rather than MB II.

Keywords:

• City of David
• Biblical Jerusalem
• Gihon Spring
• Hebron
• Middle Bronze fortifications
• Iron II B–C period

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to David Ben-Shlomo and Emanuel Eisenberg for allowing me to use their article on Tell Rumeidah/Hebron before its publication. Figures 5–9 are reproduced here with the kind permission of Alon De Groot and Hannah Bernick-Greenberg; Figs 4, 10 and 11 are reproduced here with the kind permission of Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron; Figs 13–15 are reproduced here with the kind permission of Emanuel Eisenberg; Figs 4–15 are reproduced here with the kind permission of the Israel Exploration Society. The labels in the plans were mostly added by me.

ORCiD

David Ussishkin http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8040-1992