Attitudes to concept maps as a teaching/learning activity in undergraduate health professional education: influence of preferred approach to learning

Abstract

Pre-prepared concept maps that organise knowledge in a non-linear fashion appeal to a variety of cognitive learning styles and may thus represent an educational tool that supports ‘teaching to all types’. However, another central cognitive factor, learning approach, may have a bearing on student take-up of this learning resource. Student attitudes to pre-prepared concept maps introduced in Stage 2 MPharm and BSc Pharmacology lectures were therefore examined in relation to the principal learning orientations according to Duff's 30-item revised approaches to study inventory (RASI). Approximately one half of students (49.6 ± 4.5%) reported pre-prepared concept maps to be useful to their learning (n = 121). When preferred learning approach was examined, derived from the highest RASI score per individual and excluding ties, 31.9 ± 4.3%, 29.3 ± 4.2% and 38.8 ± 4.5% of students demonstrated a preference for the deep approach (DA), strategic approach (STA) and surface approach (SUA), respectively (P > 0.05, χ² goodness-of-fit test, n = 116). There was a weak but statistically significant association between preferred learning approach identified by Duff's 30-item RASI and the self-reported usefulness of concept maps (P < 0.05, χ² test of independence; Cramer's V = 0.235; lambda = 0.193). In contrast, gender was not significantly associated with attitude to concept maps in this student cohort. A preliminary analysis of standardised residuals based on observed and expected frequencies revealed that the greatest contributions to this significant association were: a positive influence of DA and a negative influence of STA, respectively, on attitude to concept maps. These data now indicate a contribution of the principal learning orientations vis-à-vis student attitudes to pre-prepared concept maps when employed alongside more traditional teaching/learning activities in medical and biomedical science education, and may further suggest a role for concept maps in the support of deep learning.

Introduction

Approaches to learning are central learner cognitive attributes that significantly shape the nature of engagement with higher education and correlate with academic performance and also continuing professional development (see Mattick, 2004). Three defining learning orientations have been identified: the deep approach, strategic approach and surface approach which are underpinned by student-centred active interest, intention to excel and fear of failure, respectively (Marton & Säljö, 1976; Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983). The deep approach or ‘meaning orientation’ is characterised by erudition and a propensity to challenge new concepts and relate them to existing knowledge while critically determining their significance. In contrast, the syllabus-bound surface approach or ‘reproducing orientation’ is concerned with unreflective rote-learning with an emphasis on reproduction to pass examinations. The strategic approach or ‘achieving orientation’ represents a third principal learning culture, epitomised by an acute alertness to assessment demands and a corresponding organisation of study activities and deliberate adoption of study skills commensurate with attaining excellence in academic performance. Both the deep and strategic approach have been positively correlated with academic performance while the surface approach exhibits a negative correlation (Duff et al., 2004). However, it is the deep approach that is most highly esteemed in academia and valued by pedagogy and that is most often associated with academic success (Zeegers, 2001; Haggis, 2003; Mattick, 2004).

Table

Practice points

•Student attitudes to pre-prepared concept maps are negatively influenced by a moderate/strong verbalising preferred learning style and a preferred non-deep learning approach. These factors, along with issues of academic workload, motivation and institutional assessment context, represent limitations on the use of concept maps.

•Pre-prepared concept maps are popular and may afford ‘teaching to all types’ in addition to supporting deep learning during large class lectures in undergraduate health professional education.

In this regard, concept mapping is thought to be a useful tool in reinforcing meaningful learning (Novak, 2003). This is achieved in part by facilitating knowledge capture and integration as well as enriching metacognitive skills and student engagement (Watson, 1989; Taber, 1994; Pinto & Zeitz, 1997; Novak, 1990; 2003). Furthermore, recent research suggests that pre-prepared concept maps, introduced alongside more traditional teaching and learning activities, appeal to a variety of preferred learning styles in a way that would allow ‘teaching to all types’ (see Felder, 1993), at least in a tertiary medical and biomedical science education context (Laight, 2004). However, a number of important non-cognitive factors such as academic workload, motivation and institutional assessment context are known to negatively influence student uptake of this innovative learning resource (Santhanam et al., 1998; Farrand et al., 2002). In view of the notion that concept maps may strengthen and/or appeal to a deep learning approach (Novak, 2003), the aim of the present study was therefore to examine the association of the principal learning orientations with self-reported attitudes to pre-prepared concept maps introduced as a teaching/learning activity in large class undergraduate pharmacology lectures.

Methods

Preparation and use of concept maps

Concept maps were prepared by the author according to the general principles outlined by Buzan & Buzan (2000) on the subject of renal physiology and pharmacology and provided as handouts to MPharm and BSc Pharmacology undergraduates during Stage 2 large class renal pharmacology lectures. In class, reference to concept maps was integrated with more traditional content delivery.

Influence of learning approach

Learning approach was anonymously assessed with the use of the 30-item RASI by Duff et al. (1997). This survey instrument scores for three different learning approaches: deep (DA), strategic (STA) and surface (SUA) (Duff et al., 1997). In addition, students indicated on the inventory whether they considered lecturer-pre-prepared concept maps to be useful to their learning. Preferred learning approach, or that learning approach self-perceived to be adopted to the greatest extent (Sadler-Smith, 1996), was determined from the highest RASI score returned by individuals for a particular scale and a test of independence performed with respect to self-reported attitude to concept maps.

Statistical analysis

Data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean unless otherwise stated. Tests of a single proportion were based on the Normal distribution while non-parametric techniques were used in the analysis of qualitative categorical data including tests of association using the contingency table (χ² test for independence), a multicomparison of medians from related samples (Friedman test) and a comparison of two medians from independent samples (Mann–Whitney test) (Sprent, 1993; Carvounis, 2000). The measure of association between preferred learning approach and attitude to concept maps, examined using a contingency table, was assessed by Cramer's V coefficient while the percentage reduction in error in predicting attitude to concept maps by knowledge of preferred learning approach was provided by the asymmetrical lambda coefficient (Hinkle et al., 2003). Individual contributions of preferred learning approach were assessed by inspecting contingency table standardised residuals (Hinkle et al., 2003).

Results

In a sample of 121 Stage 2 MPharm and BSc Pharmacology students, median summed RASI scores for DA, STA and SUA were 27, 26 and 26, respectively (P > 0.05, Friedman test). Approximately one half of students (49.6 ± 4.5%) reported pre-prepared concept maps to be useful to their learning (P > 0.05, test of single proportion different from 0.5) (n = 121). When preferred learning approach was examined, derived from the highest RASI score per individual and excluding ties, 31.9 ± 4.3%, 29.3 ± 4.2% and 38.8 ± 4.5% of students demonstrated a preference for DA, STA and SUA, respectively (P > 0.05, χ² goodness-of-fit test, n = 116). There was a weak but statistically significant association between preferred learning approach identified by Duff's 30-item RASI and the self-reported usefulness of concept maps (P < 0.05, χ² test of independence; Cramer's V = 0.235; lambda = 0.193) (Table 1). A preliminary analysis of standardised residuals based on observed and expected frequencies in the contingency table (Table 1) revealed that the greatest contributions to this significant association were: a positive influence of DA and a negative influence of STA, respectively, on attitude to concept maps (Table 2). In addition, fewer students than expected with a preferred SUA reported concept maps useful (Table 2). Furthermore, the median RASI score for DA in students with a preferred DA was slightly but significantly higher amongst those reporting concept maps to be useful (30) compared to not useful (28) (P < 0.05, Mann–Whitney test, n = 37). Gender was not significantly associated with attitude to concept maps in this student cohort (data not shown).

Table 1.  Contingency table relating self-perceived preferred learning approach to self-reported usefulness to learning of concept maps in Stage 2 BSc Pharmacology and MPharm undergraduates.

	Preferred learning approach
	DA	STA	SUA	Totals
Concept maps useful?
Yes	24	12	21	57
No	13	22	24	59
Totals	37	34	45	116

DA = deep approach; STA = strategic approach; SUA = surface approach. P < 0.05. N = 116.

Table 2.  Standardised residuals for contingency table relating self-perceived preferred learning approach to self-reported usefulness to learning of concept maps in Stage 2 BSc Pharmacology and MPharm undergraduates. A positive residual indicates more in that category than expected by chance and vice versa. N = 116

	Preferred learning approach
	DA	STA	SUA
Concept maps useful?
Yes	+1.36	−1.15	−0.23
No	−1.34	+1.13	+0.23

DA = deep approach; STA = strategic approach; SUA = surface approach.

Discussion

In the present study, Stage 2 biomedical health students returned very similar scores for DA, STA and SUA scales on Duff's 30-item RASI. Correspondingly, there was no statistical evidence of a majority preferred learning approach; although there was a bias towards a pre-eminent SUA or ‘reproducing orientation’ with overall approximately two thirds of students favouring a non-DA. This is in contrast to a recent report on approaches to learning in Stage 1 medical undergraduates, who scored relatively highly for DA and poorly for SUA compared to other students in higher education (Mattick et al., 2004).

The significant association between preferred learning approach and self-reported attitudes to concept maps now suggests a mild influence of learning orientation in student take-up of this learning resource. In contrast, gender was not associated with attitudes to concept maps, which eliminates the potential confounding influence of gender on learning approach (Duff, 2002; Mattick et al., 2004). One facet of the analysis indicated a discrimination against concept maps arising from a non-deep learning approach, in particular STA. This achieving orientation, along with a moderate/strong verbalising preferred learning style identified by the Felder–Soloman Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire, which was previously reported to have a moderate negative influence on student attitudes to concept maps (Laight, 2004), could therefore serve to blunt the appeal of concept maps in large diverse classes. It is interesting to speculate that an overarching need to maximise academic grades, typified by STA, would not appreciate the wider education benefits offered by concept maps in the conventional assessment context, leading to the active avoidance of concept maps as non-expeditious learning aids. Conversely, there was evidence of discernment for concept maps amongst students preferring a meaning orientation, which could reflect the value of this resource as a support for deep learning. This would agree with the notion that concept maps encourage a deep level of information processing (Farrand et al., 2002; Novak, 2003). Furthermore, in an analysis of science students’ views on concept mapping reported by Santhanam et al. (1998), up to approximately 33% agreed that the technique ‘encouraged thinking more deeply’ while up to approximately 50% agreed that it ‘helped in understanding relationships between concepts’. This attribute, along with the facility to accommodate a variety of preferred learning styles often neglected in traditional science education (Felder, 1993; Laight, 2004), recommends pre-prepared concept maps as an effective teaching/learning activity in large class biomedical science lectures.

Apart from a non-deep approach to learning, limitations on the use of pre-prepared mind maps include poor take-up due to a strongly preferred need for traditional speech or text-based lecture delivery, perceived high workload, poor motivation and conventional modes of student assessment. In addition, more generally concept mapping may not conceivably suit all subject disciplines equally well and some students might eschew pre-prepared concept maps in favour of self-construction.

It is noteworthy that the adoption of a particular learning approach is thought to be relational to some degree to student perceptions of their academic environment and quality and mode of curriculum delivery (Prosser & Trigwell, 2001; Richardson & Price, 2003). However, there is still controversy surrounding the pedagogical feasibility or indeed academic relevance of instilling a preferential deep approach in a mass education context (Haggis, 2003). Such critical dissent notwithstanding, given that pre-prepared concept maps are popular, inclusive with respect to preferred learning style and positively associated with a ‘meaning orientation’ to learning, this innovative learning resource might be expected to promote student engagement and at least foster a pre-existing deep approach during large class lectures in medical and biomedical science higher education.

Conclusions

Student attitudes to pre-prepared concept maps introduced in large class lectures were weakly but significantly associated with preferred learning approach. This association mainly concerned a positive discrimination for concept maps amongst students preferring a deep approach together with a disinclination towards concept maps amongst students preferring a strategic approach. Learning orientation is therefore a significant cognitive influence on student attitudes to pre-prepared concept maps, which may themselves support deep learning.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful for the help and support of Dr. Dorothy Haslehurst and Dr. John Bradbeer.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

David W. Laight

DAVID LAIGHT is a senior lecturer and researcher in the Department of Pharmacology at the University of Portsmouth.