Understanding Ubuntu and its contribution to social work education in Africa and other regions of the world

ABSTRACT

The overarching philosophy of Black people of Africa is known by different names but Ubuntu is the most popular name. Ubuntu’s origin is attributable to Black Africans in all regions of the continent—North, West, Central, East and South. Different communities may emphasize its different aspects but they are common knowledges, values and practices. The article begins with a discussion of the philosophy of Ubuntu and its application at the micro (individual and family), meso (communal), macro (societal, environmental and spiritual) levels. The roles of Ubuntu in social work education are then discussed with a focus on Africa. These roles are offering a philosophical foundation; being a source of ethics and values; being a source of knowledge including theories; offering a history of African social work; shaping social work methods; building the confidence of educators, learners and communities; shaping research; being a pedagogical approach; enriching fieldwork education; and indigenizing and decolonizing. However, there are several impediments to the full use of Ubuntu, including the colonial history of the profession, changes to African society and lack of Ubuntu-inspired educational resources. The authors recommend continuous development and use of educational resources that are created with Ubuntu philosophy as a guiding principle.

KEYWORDS:

• Africa
• indigenisation
• philosophy
• social work education
• Ubuntu

Introduction

The overarching philosophy of Black people of Africa is named differently in African communities and languages. Some communities and ethnic groups in Angola call it gimuntu, Botswana (muthu), Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea, Gambia Liberia, Sierra Leonne and Mali (maaya), Burundi (Ubuntu), Cameroon (bato), Congo (bantu), Democratic Republic of Congo (bomoto or bantu), Ethiopia (medemer), Ghana (biako ye), Kenya (utu, munto or mondo), Malawi (umunthu), Mozambique (vumuntu), Namibia (omundu), Nigeria (mutunchi, iwa or agwa), Rwanda (ubuntu), South Africa (ubuntu or botho), Tanzania (utu, obuntu or bumuntu), Uganda (obuntu), Zambia (umunthu or ubuntu) and Zimbabwe (hunhu, unhu, botho or Ubuntu) (J. R. Mugumbate & A. Chereni, 2019). Linguistically, most of the names have a common root. From the existing names, ubuntu has become the most popular. It was popularized in South Africa, often resulting in the misconception amongst the global audience that the philosophy originated in South Africa (country) or Southern Africa (region) (Mbigi, 1997; Ramose, 2003). From here on in this article, Ubuntu with a capital letter, will be used as the common or global name of this philosophy. This overarching philosophy has existed since time immemorial, and its origin is attributable to Black Africans as a whole—North, West, East, Central and South of the continent. Black people, on all sides of the Sahara contributed to the origin and development of this philosophy over a period spanning thousands of years. Different communities may emphasize different aspects of the philosophy but there is a common foundation that shapes relations, knowledge, values and practices.

Ubuntu is one of the themes of the Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development 2020 to 2030. The Agenda’s theme for 2020–2022 is ‘Ubuntu: Strengthening Social Solidarity and Global Connectedness´. The Agenda was set by the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW), the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) and the International Council on Social Welfare (ICSW) (IFSW, 2020). That Ubuntu became the theme of such an important program is in itself an acknowledgment of African knowledges that often receive low recognition in social work education, research and practice. In this article, the philosophy of Ubuntu will be explained first to give the reader some background, followed by its historical development. An elaboration of its contribution to social work education will be given before the article concludes with a discussion of some of the gaps, challenges and opportunities.

The philosophy of Ubuntu

Definitions

Ubuntu has been defined as African humanism, a people-centered approach to looking at the world (K. Kaunda, 1966) or the intricate relationship between people, country, environment and spirituality (Mbiti, 1969). Mbiti (1969, p. 106), in explaining the philosophy behind the concept of Ubuntu, had this to say:

What happens to the individual happens to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group, community or country happens to the individual. People, country, environment and spirituality are intricately related. The individual can only say: ‘I am because we are; and since we are, therefore I am’.

Samkange & Samkange (1980) defined Ubuntu as indigenous African philosophy whose three aspects are humanity, the sanctity of life and people-centered status. Mbigi (2005, p. 75) contended that ‘Although African cultures display awesome “diversity”, they also show remarkable similarities. Community is the cornerstone in African thought and life’. Community is the most important aspect of Ubuntu (Mbigi, 1997, 2000). A more recent definition posits that Ubuntu is a collection of knowledges, values and practices that Black people of Africa view as making people more human (J. R. Mugumbate & A. Chereni, 2019). While the nuances of these knowledges, values and practices vary across different ethnic groups, they all point to one aspect—an authentic individual human being is part of a larger and more significant relational, communal, societal, environmental and spiritual world. In this article, a short definition of Ubuntu has been curated as follows:

Ubuntu is the worldview of Black people of Africa from where they derive relational, communal, societal, environmental and spiritual knowledges, values and practices.

Key values and principles of the Ubuntu worldview

There are several common Ubuntu values. Life or upenyu in the Shona language is a common value. In support if this value, Samkange and Samkange said, ‘If and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth and the “preservation of the life” of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of life’ (Samkange & Samkange, 1980, p. 7). Ukama in Shona or Harambee in Swahili means family-hood or blood relations and it is highly valued (Mbiti, 1969). Ujamaa in Swahili means community-hood and it is highly valued (Mbigi, 2000). Other values include umuganda (service to others), ururami, ubulungiswa or ubutabera (justice), ubunyarwanda (nationhood), uhuru (liberty, independence, sovereignty or freedom), umachobane (sustainability), itorero (good members of society, and a strong sense of cultural values and leadership skills), umoja (unity, peace or harmony), omutaahi and kagisano (good neighborliness), musha (permanent home in ancestral lands and country), simunye or teranga (strengths in numbers, we are one), shosholoza (resilience), kuumba (creativity or mentoring), ujima (collective responsibility), utungamiri (leadership), ushavi (workmanship or entrepreneurship), urithi or nhaka (inheritance), uroho (spiritual connectedness), unyanzvi (professionalism), munno mukabi (a true friend is one who helps or stands with you when you have problems), mambo vanhu (people centered-ness) and medemer (synergy). As noted by Bangura (2005), although these values are found in other worldviews, the concept of Ubuntu gives a distinctly African meaning to them.

Ubuntu maxims

A maxim is a statement or proverb that communicates a value, principle or knowledge about life. Some of the popular Ubuntu maxims include umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu (Zulu language); munhu munhu nekuda kwevanhu (Shona language), motho ke motho ka batho (Tswana language); umoja ni nguvu (Kiswahili language), ndi nii tondu wanyu (Kikuyu language); and an dhano nikeche wantie (Luo language). These maxims all mean becoming human through others. Another maxim is ndiri nekuti tiri (Shona) meaning ‘I am because we are, and “since” we are, therefore I am’. Another Maxim says a child belongs to the whole village (in Chewa language). Kali kokha nkanyama, tili awiri ntiwanthu is a Chewa maxim in Malawi meaning ‘one person is like an “animal”, two are a community’. Another one from the same language is mwana wa mnzako ngwako yemwe, ukachenjera manja udya naye and it means ‘your neighbor’s “child” is your own’. The Ethiopian proverb ድር ቢያብር አንበሳ ያስር (der biyaber anbesa yasir) means when webs of a spider join, they can trap a lion. This indicates the culture of collectivism and the spirit of communal living, and working together to solve common problems. ሀምሳ ሎሚ ለአንድ ሰው ሸክሙ ነው ለሀምሳ ሰው ግን ጎጡ ነው (Hamsa lomy le ande sew shekmu new, le hamsa sew gin getu new) is another maxim which translates as ‘fifty lemons are a load carried by “one person”, but for fifty people they are perfume’. This means when people live and work together things will be easier than living and working alone as an individual. ዘመድ ቢረዳዳ ችጋርም አይጎዳ (Zemed biredada chigarim aygoda) translates as ‘if relatives help each other, what harm can reach them?’ The Ethiopian proverb ለሰው መድኀኒቱ ሰው ነው (le sew medhanitu sew new) translates as ‘human’s “medicine” is human’. Mambo vanhu is a Shona maxim that expects leaders to be people-centered (Samkange & Samkange, 1980).

Origins and brief historical development

Ubuntu in indigenous African society

The specific period Ubuntu started is not known, but linguistic and archeological research has traced the existence of the language from where most Ubuntu nouns were derived to West-Central Africa about 4000 years ago (Diop, 1974; Irish, 2016). It is believed that most Black Africans were living in this area around the time but they then migrated, mostly downwards (Vansina, 1995). As they migrated, they migrated with their common values of the family, community, society, environment and spirituality (Ehret, 2001). Different experiences and environments created sub-cultures but the common values remained. It is these common values that make up Ubuntu.

At the start of and through colonization

When colonization started, Africans resisted it on the basis that it eroded Ubuntu (Mbigi, 2000). In Angola, Mbande Nzinga (1583–1663) resisted European colonization on the basis that it made her people less human (Miller, 1975). In Ghana, Yaa Asantewa (1840–1921) did the same but was exiled to Seychelles by the colonists (McCaskie, 2007). In Zimbabwe, Mbuya Nehanda Nyakasikana (1862–1898) defended the land based on the principle that land was an ancestral given asset that should be protected at all costs (Sabao, 2019). She too resisted religious colonization of her community by Christian missionaries for her resistance and she was hanged (Sabao, 2019). The three icons of decolonization—Nzinga, Asentewa and Nehanda—were all women who believed in Africa’s definition of being human. Although they were defeated, they sowed the seeds of decolonization that germinated during colonization and gave rise to pan-Africanism. Ubuntu has been promoted and popularized by pan-Africanists including but not limited to Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana (pan-Africanism), Julius Nyerere of Tanzania (ujamaa); Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo of Zimbabwe (total independence); Dedan Kīmathi of Kenya (total liberation), Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya (harambee) and Nelson Mandela of South Africa (freedom); Samora Moises Machel (social justice and self-reliance), Patrice Lumumba (liberation), Thomas Sankara (self-reliance) and Kenneth Kaunda who wrote and spoke extensively on Ubuntu which he called Zambian humanism (K. Kaunda, 1966, 1974; K. D. Kaunda, 1973, 2007).

Ubuntu in present day African societies

Although African societies have changed largely as a result of colonization but also because of globalization, urbanization, Christianization and Islamization, the foundational elements of its philosophy have remained (Mbigi, 2000; Mbiti, 1969; Mupedziswa et al., 2019). At the individual level, individuality, criminal activities, violence and homelessness have increased particularly in the urban areas, with others arguing that it the diminishing use of Ubuntu that has resulted in these modern day challenges (Bangura, 2005). In spite of these challenges, the African is still largely guided by collectivity as opposed to individuality (Chilisa, 2012). The family has remained an important pillar of African society, whether in the rural or urban areas (Government of Rwanda, 2013; Tusasiirwe., 2020). Family relations are highly valued, although larger extended family relations are not as valued in some instances in urban communities (Dziro & Rufurwokuda, 2013). The community has remained an important pillar as well (Council of Social Workers Zimbabwe [CSW], 2012), although communality in urban areas is limited (Dziro & Rufurwokuda, 2013). The larger African society may have become less cohesive because of the vices mentioned earlier in this paragraph, as evidenced by continued political and economic instability in some parts of the continent but brotherhood and sisterhood still exist among Africans (K. D. Kaunda, 2007) This is evidenced by pan-Africanism and a sense of African pride in people on and outside the continent. African languages, oratures, cuisine, ceremonies and dress, the conveyors of Ubuntu, were also impacted especially in urban communities but are still meaningful in many communities today. At the environmental level, the relationship with nature was impacted by colonization which facilitated land grabs and put in place western laws. As a result, land became crowded and the valued relationships with nature could not flourish in all communities. On the level of spirituality, foreign beliefs tried to displace African beliefs on which the Ubuntu philosophy flourished (van Breda, 2019). The results were catastrophic for Africa as individuals, families and communities were set against each other in the name of religion (Mbiti, 1969).

Besides the rural and urban divide in Africa, another population important to mention is the African diaspora. The group is not homogenous, it is composed of people who left the continent as a result of slavery and those who left because of migration as workers or as refugees (Graham, 1999). The latter group is more connected to the continent because they migrated more recently and have homes in African urban or rural areas or both. The former group has been exposed to western philosophies for a very long time, and has lost most African values through colonization and assimilation. However, both groups view African philosophy as the foundation of their values (Graham, 1999). A good example is the emergence and growth of Kwanza, a holiday to celebrate family, community and culture in the United States of America (Pleck, 2001).

The use of Ubuntu in different professions has been very faint but growing. Western methods of learning, teaching, practice and research have been dominant in the professions since colonization (Mwansa, 2011; Seehawer, 2018). However, this is changing. Ubuntu is now gradually reflected in the disciplines and professions of philosophy, law, management, education, sociology, environment, social work and others (Seehawer, 2018). In social work, Ubuntu has been applied in education, training, practice and research (Mupedziswa et al., 2019; Seehawer, 2018). The following section focuses on Ubuntu’s contribution to social work education.

The contribution of Ubuntu to social work education with a particular focus on Africa

Ubuntu offers a philosophical foundation for thinking about social work and planning educational programs

In social work, philosophies shape how people think about the family, community, society, environment and spirituality. There are different philosophies in the world, but western philosophy colonized and dominated how instructors and students think about social work (Graham, 1999; J. R. Mugumbate et al., 2020). African thinkers whose philosophical ideas are relevant to social work include Zara Yaqob (ዘርዐ ያዕቆብ) (1599–1692), Anton Amo (from about 1703–1755), Mwene Njinga Mbande (1583–1663), Nehanda Nyakasikana (1862–1898), Yaa Asantewa (1840–1921), Nyerere, Wiredu, Nabudere, Diop, Mbiti, Mbigi, Masoro, Ramose, Kaunda, Senghor, Oladipo, Okolo, Menkiti, Nkrumah, Gyekye, Kwame and Gbadegesin among others (Africa Social Work Network [ASWNet], 2021). As Smith (2021) and (Mwansa, 2011) observed, the general propensity in social work has been to set aside critical local knowledge in preference for western scientific thinking. Reference to local or indigenous ways of life therefore should largely inform the design of any social work program. There will be relevant knowledge from the West and East, this should be brought in to supplement but not displace African knowledges. In the context of Africa, Ubuntu should form the basis upon which social work education programs are anchored if the profession is to speak to local realities (Graham, 1999). When designing a social work program, Ubuntu provides a useful and appropriate philosophical foundation. Ubuntu philosophy guides the way social workers interpret social problems and think about solutions. An example comes from how African governments and social workers used Ubuntu philosophy to think about solutions to large numbers of orphans as a result of HIV and AIDS deaths in the 1990s. Taking guidance from Ubuntu philosophy, Zimbabwe’s National Orphan Care Policy and the National Action Plan for Orphans and Vulnerable Children fronted the extended family and the community as the first and second lines of defense in the event that the child loses both parents (Government of Zimbabwe, 2003). Similar or related policies were put in place in Zambia, Botswana, Lesotho, Uganda and many other countries. The strategy was to find solutions within the family, then the extended family, then the community. Institutionalization of children and adoption were seen as low-level strategies. However, in spite of these Ubuntu inspired solutions, orphanages increased, most of them with support from western donors or private organizations (Kurevakwesu & Chizasa, 2020). The above example points toward the fact that for social workers to be able to implement orphan care policies, there is merit in exposing them to the philosophical foundations upon which these policies were based. Ubuntu, as the bedrock upon which much of Africa’s social policy is anchored should therefore largely inform the training and education of social workers, including fieldwork.

Ubuntu is a source of social work knowledge including orature, literature and theories

In social work, the body of knowledge is eclectic and consists of written literature, experiential knowledge and other sources. However, Ubuntu knowledge is largely embedded in oral formats, institutions and traditions and it is experienced on a day-to-day basis as actions, feelings and thoughts (Mbigi, 1997, 2000). Often, Ubuntu-centered sources of knowledge that are experiential and oral, are neglected or not used at all in colonial educational systems. Ubuntu knowledge is contained in experiences or orature (non-written sources) but also written sources, including gray materials (Gikandi, 2003). The orature includes maxims alluded to earlier, folklore, songs, stories, genealogies (family trees), oral histories, poems, metaphor or idiom, proverbs, gestures, riddles, judgments, paintings and sculptures (Gikandi, 2003). Other sources include skills, experiences, wisdoms, rules, methods, names, ceremonies, rituals, observations of nature and designs (Chilisa, 2012). Personal sources include elders, family members, community members, leaders, knowledge holders and self (Chilisa, 2012).

Social workers have contributed significantly to Ubuntu literature including on such topics as Ubuntu social justice framework (Rankopo & Osei-Hwedie, 2011); Ubuntu as a philosophical framework for African social work (J. Mugumbate & A. Nyanguru, 2013); Ubuntu ethics (Mabvurira, 2020; Mungai et al., 2014); Ubuntu as a pan-African philosophical framework for social work in Africa (Mupedziswa et al., 2019) and toward an integrated framework of Ubuntu (J. R. Mugumbate & A. Chereni, 2019). Other works include anti-poverty and social protection model of Ubuntu (Metz, 2016) and Ubuntu ecological and eco-spiritual perspective (van Breda, 2019).

Ubuntu offers a starting point to teach and learn about the history of African social work

The history of social work often starts from Europe or America (Graham, 1999). This confuses students and social work instructors teaching this kind of history. Ubuntu can be used to reframe this part of learning and teaching. Precolonial welfare systems in Africa were driven by Ubuntu, the need to be human together with others. Each family and community boast of social services and social welfare methods that were developed across generations, and which are still in use today. Family and extended family; village and community members; and leadership structures (monarchies) and spiritual institutions (monarchies, churches and mosques) provided needed services and social welfare. These services were provided based on the philosophy that every human being deserves to live like a decent human being, and that every human being has a responsibility to serve others. These services ensured that everyone functioned well socially, extreme poverty and extreme riches were avoided, and cohesion and justice were pursued. In some societies the rich were present but they would allow the poor to use their resources, for example, a span of oxen was provided freely for plowing. Another example is about the traditional role of Kings in ensuring food security. Zunde raMambo program or King’s Granary is a program that involves the family, community and country leadership in Zimbabwe. The program involves family members joining other community members to farm communally. The yields are kept in the King granary at the royal compound for distribution to families and villages in times of need (Mararike, 2001; Ringson, 2017). Among the Buganda in Uganda, the Kabaka’s (meaning King’s) banana plantation serves the same purpose. This example shows that social security was strongly tied to relationships and reciprocity.

In Africa, there were already helpers who were inspired by Ubuntu before colonization. These included Mai Musodzi Chibhaga Ayema (ASWNet, 2020), Baba Jairosi Jiri (ASWNet, 2020; Farquhar, 1987) Charlotte Makgomo-Mannya Maxeke (Mama Mexeke) (ASWNet, 2020) (South African History Online (South African History Online [SAHO], 2020) and Joshua Mkabuko Nyongolo Nkomo (ASWNet, 2020) However, the work of these early pioneers is absent in the history of social work. Yet, had their exploits been documented and included in the reading materials of social work educational institutions, their history would make it easier for the social work student to relate and better understand the historical development of social services and social work in Africa and to get inspiration from the role played by these heroes.

Ubuntu builds the confidence of social work educators, learners and communities

When a profession uses methods, theories, values and techniques that do not align with the values of the community, then teaching, practicing and learning social work becomes difficult. For example, aspects of case work like one-on-one confidentiality and individuality are un-African (Mungai et al., 2014). We can for instance talk of group confidentiality in African contexts. In communities where the majority of people are poor or live in rural areas, developmental social work is more acceptable and beneficial compared to case work. More importantly, Ubuntu-inspired techniques provide communities with professional social work services they can trust, empowers them, utilizes the strength in them and fosters confidence. There are several examples of western techniques in social work that have limited relevance in Africa. For example, institutionalization of children, young people, people with a disabilities and older people is not a preferred solution in most African communities (Kurevakwesu & Chizasa, 2020). A more poignant example comes from Malawi where concepts of tumbo moja (children of the same mother) and watoto wazuri (good children) have been successfully applied in initiatives to provide psychosocial support to orphaned or displaced children in Dzaleka Refugee Camp, Malawi (Kakowa & Kaomba, 2020). Tumbo moja is a strategy which involves placing children with relatives while in the case of watoto wazuri the idea is to provide psycho-education in clan groups (Kakowa & Kaomba, 2020). In the post conflict society of northern Uganda, community members voluntarily engage in getting juveniles from streets and offer them foster care. These groups of women have been recognized by the formal courts as Fit Persons (fit to foster). So, rather than go through the lengthy process of foster care placements, the Ubuntu principles are recognized and integrated into the formal system (Luwangula et al., 2019). In Rwanda, the official child protection policy is founded on the philosophy of tubarerere mumuryango meaning ‘let’s raise “children” in families’. They promote Ubuntu based interventions such as inshuti z’umuryango, meaning friends of the family. These community volunteers take up care roles for vulnerable families in the community (Government of Rwanda, 2013).

The contribution of Ubuntu to social work education globally

Ubuntu is a source of social work ethics, values and principles

Presently, western ethics dominate social work, even in Africa (Mabvurira, 2020; Mungai et al., 2014; van Breda, 2019). The nature of African communities is characterized by communal living, collectivism, communal culture and values which is contrary to western societies which are more characterized by individual values and competition. Hence, the challenge is with the relevance of western ethics in a different cultural and social environment (Mabvurira, 2020; van Breda, 2019). As Mungai et al. (2014) showed, use of western ethics centered on individuality in Kenya for instance, creates challenges for social workers. The authors recommended using Ubuntu-inspired ethics as a foundation for African social work. In some countries in Africa, Ubuntu-inspired ethics have been incorporated into the profession’s code of ethics. For example, the Council of Social Workers (CSW) (Zimbabwe) has Ubuntu in its code of ethics (Council of Social Workers Zimbabwe [CSW], 2012), p. 5). The code reads thus:

… a social worker recognizes and promotes unhu/Ubuntu, she knows that inherent in each person is dignity and value, and that each person deserves respect and that a person exists within a cultural setting and a community and that the individual and community shape, influence and benefit from each other.

Ubuntu values described earlier, are all applicable in the social work profession. An example that shows where Ubuntu values have been used is the South Africa’s White Paper for Social Welfare (Government of South Africa, 1996). Principles incorporated in the White Paper include the following: caring for each other’s well-being and fostering the spirit of mutual support. Values and ethics are therefore context specific (Mbigi, 1997) although they can be similarities across different regions of the world.

Ubuntu shapes the methods of social work

Professions are distinguished by methods among other things. In social work, methods shape syllabi, subject outlines and content. The methods that could derive from the Ubuntu perspective are shown in (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Levels and methods of social work from an Ubuntu perspective.

The levels and methods mentioned above are grounded in Ubuntu values already alluded to elsewhere; these being the value for the family, community, society, environment and spirituality. Common approaches that run through the three levels are developmental, indigenous, decolonial, environmental and spiritual. Ubuntu is consistent with the promotion of these themes at all the three levels. Developmental social work approach involves inclusion of such concepts as indigenization, authentication, contextualization, empowerment, capacity building, social justice, sustainability, asset-building and others (Mupedziswa et al., 2019). Indigenous social work is about utilizing local knowledges, methods and values to meet local aspirations while spiritual social work is about recognizing the importance of spirituality in the lives of people and using knowledge about spirituality to solve social challenges. Though not added in the table, Ubuntu impacts social work at the continental (or regional) and global levels.

Ubuntu shapes social work research and research outcomes

Research is an important part of social work education. In research, Ubuntu has a role of shaping research objectives or agenda, ethics, and methods. An important part of research is conceptualizing the problem. Worldviews shape what researchers see as problems or research gaps, and this guides their objectives. Ethics are particularly important and Ubuntu ethics have been successfully used to shape ethical codes (Chilisa, 2012; Ramose, 2003). An example in respect of ethics, is the San Code for Research ethics developed by the San community in South Africa after they had suffered years of being subjects of unethical research. The San Code is predicated on the notion of Ubuntu values of the family, community, respect, reciprocity and justice (South African San Institute (South African San Institute [SAAI], 2017). Participants (i.e. respondents) in social work research are human beings like anyone else and as such they deserve to be respected and empowered. The San people ask researchers to ‘come through the door not the window’ meaning that there should be no deceit and withholding of relevant information (SAAI, 2017, p. 2). They urge promotion of dialogue and expect their knowledge and elders to be respected. They want their contribution to existing knowledge to be recognized. Their code asks for true participation and collaboration between the locals and researchers. Research driven by the philosophy of Ubuntu does immensely value oral and other forms of non-written literature. Publishers of books and journals usually insist on citing of written literature instead of orature, however, sometimes this requirement constrains African researchers since most of what is known is not yet documented but exists in orature, which includes but is not limited to folklore, unwritten literature and names (Chilisa, 2012). So, if an African student or practitioner provides an argument based on their knowledge of community it should be respected as such.

Ubuntu pedagogical approach

Described as ‘ubuntugogy’ (Bangura, 2005), the art and science of teaching and learning undergirded by humanity toward others, the Ubuntu pedagogical approach encourages learning and teaching focused on real life situations of learners and teachers (Bangura, 2005). Bangura (2005, p. 13) went further to argue that ‘ubuntugogy transcends pedagogy (art and science of teaching and learning), andragogy (art and science of helping adults to learn), “ergonargy” (art and science of helping people learn to work), and heutagogy (the study of self-determined learning)’. If utilized in the classroom, Ubuntu shapes teaching philosophies, that is, ways of thinking about, and practising teaching. It helps shape the teacher’s delivery methods, techniques and values. For example, ‘collectivity’ and reciprocity can be values used in teaching, where the classroom becomes a family or community (J. Mugumbate & A. Nyanguru, 2013). Other values useful in the classroom include respect and decolonizing. Students will benefit from such a teaching philosophy, and their own learning is enriched not only in the classroom but during practical fieldwork. Other values include consensus building, dialogue and spirituality (Bangura, 2005). Tusasiirwe (2020) suggests bringing the community to the classroom as a way of coaching students to value different forms of knowledges from the bottom up.

Ubuntu enriches fieldwork education

Fieldwork is an important part of social work education (Mungai et al., 2014). It involves a student practising social work for a defined period of time, under the supervision of the academic institution and agency (Mupedziswa et al., 2019). During fieldwork, students engage with and create professional relationships with work colleagues, service users and community leaders. Ubuntu can be used to shape this process in a number of ways. One way is to apply Ubuntu values in fieldwork. This can start during preparation for fieldwork. Other training institutions prepare students by giving them manuals to read, others do preparatory seminars and others ask students to enroll in a fieldwork taught subject. Whatever mode of preparation is used, having Ubuntu values as part of the preparation would be useful. This is not the only way Ubuntu can be recognized. Another way is to incorporate Ubuntu values during orientation at the work agency or during training of fieldwork supervisors.

Ubuntu indigenizes and decolonizes social work education

Social work varies even though it has common elements (Gray & Fook, 2004; Mwansa, 2011). As has been noted earlier, social work in Africa is rooted in colonialism. Mwansa (2011, p. 1) said African ‘social work education lacks relevance in terms of its philosophical, value and ideological base’ and this results in students who have inadequate adequate knowledge and skills. One of the modern goals of social work is to help decolonize and help former colonized people to realize their collective aspirations and potential. Borrowing from the work of pan-Africanists, the aspirations include maintaining Ubuntu as the overarching philosophy, decolonization, an authentic African identity and African-centered education. Ubuntu presents a practical opportunity to not only decolonize social work literature, practices and methods but to indigenize it (Mupedziswa et al., 2019). This is consistent with the promotion of developmental social work approach which many have argued is the best approach for Africa (Mupedziswa et al., 2019; Rankopo & Osei-Hwedie, 2011).

Ubuntu in global social work education

The discussion above focused on Ubuntu in African social work education, however, Ubuntu has global relevance. As already, pointed out in the introduction, Ubuntu was acknowledged by the global social work institutions. As is currently, global social work is dominated by western philosophies, and African philosophy was until recently not acknowledged. The acknowledgment has, however, not extended to education, hence the motivation to write this article. Ubuntu philosophy is a source of values and ethics that could be used in any part of the world and they are as relevant as ethics from other regions of the world. Further, Ubuntu inspired orature, theories and experiences are useful for social work education, not only in Africa but throughout the world. In former colonized parts of the world, Ubuntu provides an example of knowledge that could be used to decolonize and indigenize methods of social work education, research and practice.

Gaps, challenges and opportunities

In western literature, philosophies have founders, proponents, authors or theorists. This cannot be said of the African worldview which cannot be linked to specific individuals because it is communal knowledge (Mbiti, 1969). Ubuntu can not be said to have been ‘discovered’ or ‘founded’, it is a lived experience, passed from generation to generation through non-written forms (Mbigi, 2000). Ubuntu belongs to all who inherited it and it will also be inherited from them by their next generation. Trying to use a western lens (e.g. identifying the founder of Ubuntu) to understand Ubuntu often presents challenges. As Mbigi (1997) said, we need to apply the concept of nhorowondo, meaning understanding phenomena in its context. In this case, Ubuntu philosophy can be understood best by looking at it in the context of the culture, institutions and experiences of Black people of Africa.

Some writers have found defining Ubuntu a challenge, and resorted to using the maxim a person is a person through others as a definition (Karsten et al., 2005). Where definitions have been provided, they have focused on relational and communal aspects of Ubuntu such as caring, harmony and hospitality, respect and responsiveness (Mangaliso, 2001; Mbigi, 1997) and neglected environmental and spiritual issues as well as macro level societal issues such as social justice, economic justice, leadership and languages. The definition provided in this article, that Ubuntu is the worldview of Black people of Africa from where they derive relational, communal, societal, environmental and spiritual knowledges, values and practices, tries to address this gap.

There is also a fair amount of concern, that Ubuntu is easily abused for political gain, making it a tool for injustice. For example, to the effect that the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa instituted at the end of the apartheid era focused on truth telling and forgiveness for crimes committed during the apartheid era in that country but did less to ensure compensation and sustained decolonization (Metz, 2017; Ojedekun & Ajayi, 2015). Ubuntu justice does not only focus on forgiveness but redistribution, compensation, return or replacement (Mbigi, 2000). Those steering the Commission’s processes did not go a step further to ensure that stolen means of production, mainly land, was returned to Black people who lost it during colonization of the continent.

Certain observations in the context of the discourse on the issue of Ubuntu have not been criticisms as such but rather misunderstandings of this concept. For example, there is a misconception that the concept of Ubuntu was founded by the late former South African President Madiba Nelson Mandela; or by the Archbishop Desmond Tutu. Mandela and Tutu were two of several pan-Africanists who promoted the philosophy of Ubuntu and made it prominent. Others included late African Presidents who included Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia), Robert Mugabe (Zimbabwe), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanzania), Samora Machel (Mozambique) and Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya).

There is still a huge gap in the use and inclusion of Ubuntu in education, research and practice of social work in Africa (Mupedziswa et al., 2019; van Breda, 2019). Some people still see Ubuntu as inferior to ideas from other regions of the world while others lack the confidence to write, talk, defend, lecture or tutor about it. Others do not use Ubuntu because they do not have the resources that are curated or created with Ubuntu values in mind—syllabi, books, textbooks, journal articles, book chapters, case studies, codes of ethics, guidelines, models, theories, free lectures, assessments, examinations, online content, videos and simulation environments. The local language required to express Ubuntu adequately is not yet available in the literature.

Hakuna mhuka inofurira ivete, meaning no animal can graze for another. If Africans do not use their philosophies, no one will use them for them (Samkange & Samkange, 1980). Promoting use of Ubuntu would be the responsibility of African social workers, professional bodies, publishers, libraries, schools of social work and bodies such as the Association of Schools of Social Work in Africa (ASSWA) and the ASWNet. While international organizations such as the IFSW, the IASW and the ICSW, can play their part, much of the work has to be internally driven. When looking at what Ubuntu can offer to social work education in Africa and globally, these gaps and challenges look very small.

Conclusion

Ubuntu is essentially Black Africans’ view of the world. It shapes how they think about individuals, family, community, country, society, the environment and spirituality. In social work education globally, Ubuntu has a role of improving philosophies, aims, content, processes and outcomes. It is consistent with developmental and indigenous social work, which many argue are more suited to the global South. More importantly, it applies at the micro (individual and relational or family), meso (communal or community) and macro (societal, country, environmental or spiritual) levels. However, there are some gaps and challenges with the use of Ubuntu in social work education, one of them being a lack of detailed and in-depth information about it, its origin and application. The authors have expanded the definition of Ubuntu, and offered information about Ubuntu values, principles, maxims, origin and applications in social work education. The authors recommend continuous development and sustained use of teaching and learning resources that are curated or created with Ubuntu values in mind.

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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jacob Rugare Mugumbate

Rugare Jacob Mugumbate, PhD Social Work, teaches in the School of Health and Society, University of Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia; is a Senior Research Associate, Department of Social Work & Community Development, University of Johannesburg, South Africa and was former faculty member at Bindura University, Zimbabwe. His work focuses on use of indigenous knowledges such as Ubuntu in decolonising social work and development education, research and practice.

Rodreck Mupedziswa

Rodreck Mupedziswa, PhD, is the inaugural Coordinator of the Centre for Gender-Based Violence (GBV) and Empowerment of Vulnerable Groups (EVGs) at BA ISAGO University in Gaborone, Botswana. Until 2021, he was with the Department of Social Work, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana. Previous positions held by Prof Mupedziswa include Director of the Forced Migration Studies Programme in the Graduate School for the Humanities at the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) in Johannesburg and Deputy Director at the School of Social Work at the University of Zimbabwe.

Janestic M. Twikirize

Janestic Mwende Twikirize, PhD Social Work and Social Development, teaches in the Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda. Dr Twikirize served as the Vice President of the Association of Schools of Social Work in Africa (ASSWA) and as a board member of the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) from 2012 to 2018. She is the East Africa Regional Coordinator of PROSOWO, a six-member institutional academic partnership project to professionalise social work in East Africa. She has served as a Visiting Lecturer at Gothenburg University, Sweden, and University of Stavanger, Norway. Her research areas and published works focus on social work in Africa, indigenisation of social work, gender and child rights.

Edmos Mthethwa

Edmos Mthethwa, PhD Social Science, is the Chief Director of Social Development and Disability Affairs in the Ministry of Public Service, Labour, and Social Welfare, Zimbabwe and teaches in the Department of Social Work, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe. His research work focuses on disability and human rights.

Ajanaw Alemie Desta

Ajanaw Alemie Desta teaches in the Department of Social Work, College of Social Sciences and the Humanities, The University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia. He has been teaching, conducting research, and rendering community services since 2009. He has served as Head, Department of Social Work from June 2015- June 2017. He has presented his papers both at national and international conferences. He has been fellow for Civil Society Scholars Award twice in 2017/18 and 2019/20. His research interests include social and community development, multicultural social work, indigenous social work, social protection, social work education and disadvantaged groups.

Oluwagbemiga Oyinlola

Oluwagbemiga Oyinlola is with the Department of Medical Social Services, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria and is a PhD candidate, School of Social Work, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. His research interests are in culturally relevant social work services in Africa with a focus on health services.