Addressing Cultural Barriers with Muslim Clients: An Agency Perspective

Abstract

Social service agencies face challenges in balancing the provision of culturally sensitive service with government mandates and policies. This article provides insight into some of the issues around culturally sensitive service delivery that agencies face when working specifically with clients who are Muslim. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 50 Canadian Muslim and non-Muslim social work practitioners in three Canadian cities to identify these specific issues. Respondents identified barriers to service provision for some Muslim clients and identified ways in which agencies can be responsive in addressing these barriers. Implications for social work practice are discussed.

KEYWORDS:

• social services
• barriers
• Canadian Muslims
• social work

A primary goal for social service agencies and social work practitioners is to foster policies and procedures that fulfill the necessary promotion of cultural competence and sensitivity in every aspect of their social service delivery system (Haynes, Eweiss, Mageed, & Chung, 1997; Weaver, 2005). The significance of promoting cultural competence and sensitivity is highlighted by the recent emphasis placed within the social work profession on adapting its knowledge base and practices to operate in a culturally diverse world. Within this movement to adapt social work knowledge and practices has arisen a multicultural initiative in the profession known as the localization movement. This particular movement calls for developing a different social work knowledge base for each culture encountered. This research study follows from the conceptualization of the localization movement within the profession by considering Islam as a basis for localizing social work knowledge. Focusing on the cultural distinctiveness of Islam is important within the multicultural reality of Canada. In 2001, the population of Muslim people in Canada was approximately 2% of the entire population (Statistics Canada, 2001). On an international level, Islam is the world's second largest religion and spans across the entire globe. While the exact number of Muslims residing in the United States is under dispute, the PEW Research center estimates that Muslims constitute 0.6% of the American adult population. These figures project to approximately 1.4 million Muslims over the age of 18 currently living in the United States (Pew Research Center, 2007).

Furthermore, the events of September 11, 2001 (9/11) have resulted in Islam becoming a global interest—with a multitude of negative implications attached. For example, occurrences of racially motivated attacks on Muslim peoples, social exclusion, and social alienation are well documented and have increased in number and severity since 9/11. The distinctiveness of Islam is further evidenced by the premise that it acts as a meta-narrative, affecting all walks of life, for many of those who follow this particular faith tradition. Given the steady increase in the Muslim population within Canada and throughout North America, the distinctiveness and abundance of Islamic culture, and the issues of social exclusion and alienation present in Canadian society and throughout North America, now is the time to consider social services for Muslim peoples. Social services are needed that acknowledge Muslim people as part of the infrastructure in Canada, promoting the betterment of and progress within Canadian Muslims' lives and responding to the multitude of structural and personal social problems that result from racism and social exclusion. A purposeful component of this study was to build on, and expand further, a particular body of literature devoted to researching the parameters and characteristics of multicultural social work (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2003; Herberg, 1993; Lie & Este, 1999) by being grounded in the implications and assumption of anti-discriminatory social service theory and practice. Key books, past and present, that are used to understand multicultural social work are predominantly British or American in origin (Devore & Schlesinger, 1996), and maintain assumptions that specifically relate to those particular countries, further highlighting the need to expand our knowledge base of the multitude of cultures that add to the multicultural history of Canada. The research findings can provide a necessary understanding for social workers and the public on how institutions such as social work can perpetuate racism, how social service organizations can promote understanding in a cross cultural manner, and how barriers like discrimination and social exclusion inhibit social service processes and social development progress. While the study is concerned specifically with Muslim clients, its conclusions may prove to be beneficial to understanding multicultural practice in general, as well as working with other immigrant and minority groups.

CULTURAL ADAPTATION OF SOCIAL SERVICE AGENCIES

The social work scholarly community has proposed that there is a need for a more conscious adaptation of the methods utilized in the practice of social work to better fit the specific culture in which the methods are being applied (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2003; Healey, 1999; Herberg, 1993; Midgley, 1981, 1997; Ragab, 1990). As a result, two predominant theoretical approaches have developed within social work education and practice: an anti-oppressive model and a model of cultural competence. The anti-oppressive model is an approach that permits practitioners to conceive of all the various constructs that define identity—including age, age cohort status, ethnicity, gender, nationality, race, range of ability, religion, sexual identity, socioeconomic class, etc.—as a source for understanding the self, structural and institutional inequalities, and differences among all peoples (Bishop, 1994; Macey & Moxon, 1996). The second theoretical approach is operationalized as the model of cultural competence. The intention of this model is to make the most of a social worker's cognitive and affective commitment to ethnoracial plurality (Este, 1999). Both of these models promote the need for social workers and agencies to be aware of the diversity found among individuals and within and between particular groups (essentially defined by a common characteristic, trait, or belief system, or lack thereof). These theoretical approaches have limitations, as social work practitioners maintain discretion in their practice environments. Ultimately, most of the responsibility for change is placed on individual social workers.

Acknowledging that practitioners (often functioning with higher caseloads and decreased funding) are one significant source for creating a more culturally sensitive approach to social work, they are not the only basis. Social service agencies, as organizations, have a responsibility to promote through policy, practice, and training, the climate within which practitioners can work more sensitively with clients from different cultural and religious traditions, and to maintain an environment free of racial discrimination (Basham, Donner, Killough, & Rozas, 1997). Furthermore, the field of social work requires insight into how changes in the current knowledge base can promote ethnoracially sensitive social work knowledge and intervention that can be sustained and provide meaning to a particular client, group, or community.

An overview of the literature identifying the degree to which agencies are adapting services to meet the needs of intended client groups illustrates the hardships that agencies are facing in current economic and political times. Over the last few decades, social service agencies have been faced with large cutbacks in government funding, leading to cuts in services offered and greater emphasis on shorter-term intervention strategies (Shera & Bogo, 2001). Agencies do not typically have set guidelines of practice that promote culturally competent service delivery (Dana, Behn, & Gonwa, 1992). Some research has surfaced that identifies the needs of specific population groups in relation to agency mandates and missions (see, for example, Helfrich & Simpson, 2006), but this research is quite limited. Ultimately, generic types of intervention have become the most financially feasible, but result in agencies not meeting the needs of clients for cultural-specific interventions. The present article seeks to respond to these omissions and add to a recent body of literature focusing on agencies and culturally appropriate service delivery by providing a focus on the issues faced by agencies that work with Muslim clients, and how agencies can modify their approach to ensure that their Muslim clients receive adequate and culturally sensitive services.

METHODOLOGY

Participants

The present study is based on qualitative interview data collected from 50 social work practitioners in Ottawa, Montreal, and Toronto. Participants were non-randomly selected after a process of snowball sampling that identified social workers who work with Muslim clients through a process of key informant interviews undertaken with agency directors, professors, and other well-respected social workers involved in multicultural practice. All participants work with Muslim clients and were selected based on their status of being Muslim or non-Muslim, and on fulfilling a broad representation of Islam. Furthermore, care was given to generating as broad of a sample as possible that was inclusive of both males and females, and had variations in academic credential (diploma versus BSW versus a graduate degree), agency mandate (child welfare versus mental health versus income security), and auspice (public or private).

Procedure

Semi-structured, open-ended interviews were conducted with each of the service providers. These interviews took approximately two hours. Data collection employed an active interview process that was dialogical, as is standard ethnographic technique (Holstein & Gubrium, 1995; Stewart, 1998). The interview protocol was incrementally revised from one client to the next, pending input from previous participants (Coulon, 1995). All interviews conducted in French were later translated into English.

The questions themselves, like the sampling procedure, relied on community members' participation, and were determined collaboratively through a series of Web-based discussions with social workers. Most of the questions developed for the interview protocol concentrated on how practitioners localize their approach to social work knowledge, with a focus on what does work when working with their Muslim clientele and what they find does not work. The questions varied from one practitioner to the next, as the study was exploratory, and the desired outcome was largely based on capturing the significant aspects of working with Muslim clients from the social workers' perception. Some of the questions were specifically directed toward obtaining information about the agency's approach to working with Muslim clients, while other questions were related to the context of the informants' social service practice.

Analysis

Following transcription of the interviews and review for accuracy by the researchers, textual coding and analysis was conducted using ATLAS.ti for Windows using standard procedures for qualitative research (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). A list of descriptive codes, 14 in total, was created based on the general themes and topics identified by the researchers during the interviews and transcription. The interview transcripts were coded using these codes. Pattern coding was conducted using ATLAS.ti's query tool (Muhr, 1997) to identify more specific themes and constructs. This tool uses pattern coding to examine the relationship between codes. Memoing, which involves creating short descriptive headings based on the patterns and quotations identified, was used to describe and analyze the patterns that were found. The organized descriptive statements were then interpreted by the researchers.

FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK

Respondents identified challenges that agencies that work with some Muslim clients face as they try to ensure that services are available and are as culturally sensitive as possible, while still conforming to agency and government policies. Issues confronting social service agencies ultimately influence the opportunities available to service providers and the services available to clients. With regard to Muslim clients, it is important to note the great variation that exists within and between Muslim communities. Communities may differ on the basis of their denominational affiliation—Sunni, Shi'a, Ismaili, or Ahmadi; their ethnic origin (Arabs vs. non-Arab Muslims); as well as different generations of immigrants. The variations within and between those communities may include different levels of religious observance and adherence to religious law, different styles of worship, and different languages spoken. This is suggestive that no single practice technique could be suggested and then employed to meet the needs of every Muslim client for whom an agency provides service. The following illustrates how the agency perspective, with regard to cultural sensitivity, creates situations where cultural conformity is an underlying premise of culturally sensitive practice. The first section describes respondents' thoughts on the cultural understanding that agencies need to encourage their social workers to engage in more culturally sensitive practice. The second theme to be explored through our findings is the services that agencies can offer that address some of these needs, often identified as necessary for appropriate practice with some Muslim clients by respondents. The final topic examines how respondents described the cultural knowledge and sensitivity incorporated into agency policies and practices, including barriers that inhibit quality service provision. Overall, respondents reiterated that different clients may require different services. It is ultimately important to ensure that services respect the Muslim cultural values held by a particular client and meet their specific individual cultural needs.

Barriers to Service Provision

Many respondents identified barriers that exist for some Muslim clients that may limit or block their access to needed services. Respondents identified that agencies can help to limit the impact of these barriers by identifying and addressing them, when possible and necessary, and by providing clients with the information that they require to navigate the social service system.

Language barrier

Language is a means of creating social relationships and realizing the self involved in those relationships (Rees, 1991). Clients who have difficulty speaking and understanding English may face limitations to service access. Generally, those with limited proficiency in the dominant language are less likely to access and receive care (Woloshin, Schwartz, Katz, & Welch, 1997), partly due to the lack of adequate interpretation. Often, other patients, family members, friends, or non–fluent professionals are enlisted to assist translation (Jacobs, Shepard, Suaya, & Stone, 2004); in the arena of social services, this can create additional barriers. Service providers that work with clients of limited English proficiency risk not being able to adequately assess and address their concerns; as one respondent stated:

And I guess the concern as well as far as the potential risk that leaves the client in as far as other threats to their well being when you can't connect them or be able to relate to them and understand their issues and their immediate problems.

Also, a number of our respondents identified how some clients may end up holding back information and may not be able to explain exactly what their situation is and what they need. They may have difficulty dealing with simple problems that arise because they are unable to understand what they are required to do. Other respondents discussed how service providers may make assumptions about what clients are saying or assume that clients have a greater understanding of things than they actually do. Several respondents pointed out how service providers may also end up communicating in an inappropriate manner in an effort to overcome these difficulties. For many respondents in this study, language difficulties can block efforts to work with clients at a preventative level, and client problems are usually well established by the time they seek assistance. Ideally, some respondents identified that agencies should make an effort to provide social workers who speak the same language as clients or interpreters that can help overcome these language difficulties.

Nevertheless, one must also keep in mind that Canada has a large number of second and third generation of Muslim-Canadians, whose proficiency in English is excellent, and with whom language should not constitute a barrier at all.

Agency values and policies

An understanding of Islamic values and cosmology has been identified as required to prevent barriers to service and ensure effective practice with some clients who maintain their faith (Hodge, 2005; Kelly, Aridi, & Bakhtiar, 1996). Several respondents recognized that in some cases the values of a social service agency may conflict with the needs of some clients. These respondents described that the agencies may not be sensitive to the cultural values of these clients and that they may try to provide services that conflict with these values, such as encouraging clients to take jobs that require them to work with alcohol. If agencies lack cultural understanding, their policies and values may cause them to question client choices in a manner that is culturally insensitive. As one respondent stated:

I was more thinking about him going there because he's the oldest son and because she is a widow and she died, and so it's the role of her son, of the oldest son, to bury her. There are things in the Muslim religion—the Muslim traditions—that's different from [those of] other people. All the other person was concerned about was “Oh your client went to Syria, how did he have money to go there?”

Various respondents pointed to the error in agency policies that may not take into account longstanding religious and cultural traditions relevant to their clients, and how trying to apply rules in the same way to people from different backgrounds may overlook important extenuating circumstances. These same respondents pointed out that agencies with an Islamic client base must make an effort to adapt their policies and procedures to allow for a more flexible and culturally sensitive approach, reducing the influence of this potential barrier.

Social service practitioners

Another barrier to effective service can be caused by power imbalances that exist between clients and service providers (Cohen, 1998; Maiter, Palmer & Manji, 2006). This is especially salient given that, for some Muslims, relationships tend to be reciprocal and consultative (Hodge, 2005). A number of respondents identified that agencies have a significant amount of control over their client's lives, causing the power dynamic in the counseling relationship to be skewed in favor of the service provider. One respondent stated:

But with the social worker is a totally different situation where the person will only take anger and resentment and will say to herself, “She can't talk to me like that, or she can't tell me, or she did that to me.” But the person cannot tell you to your face. She will just look down and say nothing.

Other respondents stated that service providers need to be aware of cultural factors that are relevant to their clients, and agencies should try to ensure that services are provided in a culturally sensitive manner.

Service providers can do a number of things that can have a negative impact on their work with some clients. Several respondents identified that one way an agency can help ensure individuals will feel more comfortable requesting service is by hiring and maintaining a diverse staff. Guarding against these things can help to ensure that agencies successfully interact with the Muslim community.

Cultural assumptions and misunderstandings

Prior research has demonstrated the need for practitioners to understand Muslim cultural values to effectively interact with some Muslim clients (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2000a; Hodge, 2005). They also must be careful not to assume universality across Muslim people's values (Hodge, 2005). Social workers should avoid judging clients for wearing traditional dress. Respondents identified that social workers should try to remain objective and should recognize the importance of kinship in traditional Muslim life and how their specific Muslim clients typically approach problems. Furthermore, respondents highlighted how working with Muslim culture and Islam can be intimidating for service providers who are from a different background, and cultural knowledge is necessary to avoid misunderstandings and to help clients feel like they have been understood.

Service providers should avoid making undue cultural assumptions. These assumptions can be related to discriminatory practices and approaches. As one respondent stated:

Yes, and then what we find out is that a lot of women who—some women that were using the hijab were highly skilled immigrants. They were not only people who were not educated. We even have women who were born here who were very … smart and they went to university… so the thinking that because a woman has a hijab that she has to go for ESL is not right.

Some respondents reiterated that individuals should be assessed on an individual basis without making undue assumptions, and interventions should be designed to address individual problems. Cultural assumptions cannot be used in place of cultural understanding.

Cultural insensitivity

Social workers can easily become perpetrators of cultural insensitivity by not respecting their clients' values and cultural practices. They must avoid reflecting larger cultural biases and demonstrate respect for cultural diversity and cultural sensitivity in service provision (Hodge, 2005). Researchers agree that knowledge about a client's culture is a necessary element in therapeutic work; however, many note that knowledge is not sufficient to demonstrate cultural sensitivity (Dyche & Zayas, 2001; Parson, 1993). Moreover, Baum (2007) claims that cultural sensitivity alone is insufficient when it comes to dealing with issues raised by political conflict, or when the client is perceived by the practitioner as belonging to an ‘enemy’ group. While her study was aimed particularly at conflict-ridden areas, the perception of Muslims as being ‘the enemy’ is not uncommon in post-9/11 North America, and practitioners should be aware of the danger of the stereotype.

Respondents in this study reported that when working with some clients, cultural sensitivity involves recognizing and demonstrating respect for the role that Islam plays in clients' lives by giving clients the opportunity to engage in religious rituals if they wish to do so. Furthermore, some respondents suggested it also involves respecting the importance (or lack of importance) of family and community status and conducting interventions in a manner that does not compromise the client's values. Study participants reported that they can help to reduce cultural insensitivity in other settings by providing cultural education so that others can understand and better accommodate Muslim values. With regard to agencies, some respondents suggested that they can help by ensuring that programs consider and integrate the customs and values of the client in their policies. It is important to appreciate clients' situations and backgrounds. Culturally sensitive practice decisions will be more effective overall, as one respondent stated:

Well, some of the issues were around. You know, I'm working with this particular woman, and I'm giving her this type of feedback, and then right in the middle she has to break because she has to go to pray, or something like that, and what should I do? And so the response then would be: You've got to recognize that that's part of her religion. That's part of her culture. And you've got to respect it by giving her the time to go and do that.

Furthermore, several of the study's participating social workers stated that it could be helpful for non-Muslim social workers to work with Muslim social workers or acquaintances when making initial contact with Muslim clients. This may help to bridge the cultural gap between the social worker and the client, and may help to alleviate mistrust and apprehension. One respondent stated:

You are really right because I have been noticing that—mistrust. It is apprehension. I was thinking about it and I thought perhaps the best way would be for a social worker from another community, another faith, another group, to perhaps have some Muslim social workers to work with them. For example, if you were going to meet a Muslim family, then if you have a Muslim worker or Muslim acquaintance or friend that is a social worker to start building that—to start bridging that gap because the link that you have with you is very strong.

Structural and systemic barriers

Services for immigrants (e.g., citizenship, education, skill retraining, official language training, childcare, and health care) have been detrimentally impacted by Canadian economic policies since the 1980s (Stewart et al., 2006; Man, 2002; Richmond, 2000). This has created systemic barriers to accessing services for immigrants in Canada. Structural barriers can influence how some clients interact with the broader community. A number of studies have identified structural barriers—especially legal, procedural, and bureaucratic barriers—and policies moderating help-seeking behaviors among immigrants accessing social and health services (Bui, 2003; Chan, 2000; Raj & Silverman, 2002). Some respondents described how some clients are not prepared for the bureaucracy that they face as new immigrants and may have difficulty with documentation due to problems with other social systems. A number of respondents identified that agencies may be biased in their policies, organization, or structure in a way that is disabling and discriminatory to clients, increasing their sense of marginalization. Furthermore, respondents described how agencies can also limit and control client success by pushing them out of the social service system as soon as possible or by withholding benefits to reduce the ‘appeal’ of social assistance:

Oh, we have to give money. Just be very careful. Don't give too much. But there's—so there's guidelines, though, and there [are] benefits that come with the social assistance. So are you observing that the employment counselors or welfare workers are withholding based on that.

Many study participants described how some clients may have difficulty locating agencies in their community that have effective multicultural policies. Some respondents identified that practitioners may find it difficult to report on or deal with issues such as systematic racism because they fear that they will be targeted as a troublemaker, making it difficult to address some of these systemic issues.

Also, a few respondents said some clients may have limited education, which can interfere with successful adaptation to life in North America. These structural barriers, as identified by respondents, can influence their access to opportunities such as employment. Additionally, some respondents described how some of their clients may find that opportunities for higher education are less accessible to them, and some may be concerned that they are not representing themselves properly, particularly if they do not speak English well. Moreover, a number of respondents described how some of their clients may not know how to ask for services and may feel disempowered and threatened by agencies. To address these barriers, some respondents suggested that taking a sensitive approach and helping clients understand the situation can help avoid clients feeling like they are being pushed around. Systematic and structural barriers can have a great impact on clients, and agencies should recognize this and try to help clients navigate these barriers rather than contributing to them through insensitive policies and approaches. As one respondent stated:

We deal with it all the time—and not just a worker bias but an agency bias. We look at the policies that are inherent and how agencies are organized and structured and governed, and I see more handicap and I see more discrimination and marginalization than I could even begin to talk about.

Agency Responses to Address Barriers

Agencies open to change and to adapting their policies will be better able to implement and ensure cultural competency and sensitivity (Bernard, 1998). The approaches taken by social service agencies can be modified to support greater cultural sensitivity and ensure that clients' needs are met.

Flexibility

A goal for agencies is to include cultural competence and sensitivity in every aspect of their social service delivery system (Haynes et al., 1997); in part this can be achieved through enhanced flexibility and sensitivity and through accommodating Muslim clients, particularly immigrant and refugee clients (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2000a; Nápoles-Springer, Santoyo, Houston, Pérez-Stable, & Stewart, 2005). Some participants identified that service providers and agencies should be aware of the cultural factors and limitations that influence client situations and use flexibility in applying rules. Also, a few respondents suggested that agencies that work to provide flexible and timely appointments that accommodate client cultural values are more effective. Furthermore, some study participants said that taking a flexible approach that allows for drop-in appointments while being respectful and fair can make an agency more accessible and acceptable to clients. Adopting flexible policies and approaches can make agencies more attractive to many client groups. As one respondent stated:

So flexibility. I am talking about it within the context of whatever you're doing— being actively observing the person's body language, sensing that level of comfort, listening to what they are saying to you … Working to schedule dates and times. And sometimes I get with the agencies and get set up. I have to follow through it in the boundaries of our work.

Client-centered approach

Individual providers should practice greater cultural competency in their interactions with clients (Weaver, 2005). Respondents here identified that agencies that take a client-centered approach are ideal for their clients, ensuring that services meet individual needs:

Islamic religion and the school of the social work is in keeping the kind of clients at the center of your attention. It's a client-favored approach, and you have to work at the base of the client to be helpful.

Culturally specific responses

Several respondents reported that agencies that take a culturally specific approach to working with Muslim clients are ideal. Cultural adaptations increase programs' and agencies' cultural accessibility (Malley-Morrison & Hines, 2004). Describing their present agencies, respondents identified that some of their agencies are ethnically specific, providing programs specially designed for clients and families that speak a specific language, while other agencies demonstrate a culturally specific approach by setting up group homes and programs specifically for Muslims. One respondent discussed the positive aspects of this new facility:

There wasn't a specific group home f or Muslim kids, and there's really good need because of the culture aspect, the language aspect of it, the food aspect of it, the religious aspect—five-times-a-day prayers, a lot of things like that were not being met by the group home or the foster home parents just because they did not know really much about the whole religious aspect of it. So, a few people got together and I guess they did make that, and I was involved in that, that initiative.

Study participants described how some agencies work exclusively with immigrants and refugees, and this influences the language, tone, and ease of interventions, allowing new immigrants to become more established in Canadian society with regard to employment, housing, and education. Respondents here identified that culturally specific responses can include offering services in a client's native tongue or providing interpretation, and are enhanced when the social workers involved understand the client's cultural values, traditions, norms, and mores. By taking a culturally sensitive and specific approach to service provision, agencies can provide effective and positive guidance and services to clients.

Cultural diversity

Agencies and providers should avoid reflecting biases and demonstrate respect for cultural diversity in their provision of services (Hodge, 2005). Some respondents reported that agencies can help to enhance cultural sensitivity by promoting awareness of different cultural traditions, considering the variations within the Muslim perspective, and accommodating the variations in Muslim traditions. In order for this to work effectively, social workers need cultural education (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2000a). Agencies can also benefit from employing culturally diverse service providers (Arrendo et al., 1996; Kelly et al., 1996; Russell & White, 2001). Some participants similarly suggested that people can be hired to deal with issues of diversity, and specialized people and services can be integrated into mainstream agencies to ensure that the specific needs of diverse clientele can be met. Also, a number of respondents identified that agencies need more workers that share and understand the culture of their clients. Efforts to introduce needed languages, train or hire from the community, and consider Islamic guidelines in the organization's setup can be highly beneficial, as one respondent stated:

Unconsciously, I become so comfortable. See how it's important to make work environment very representative, diverse. And I'm quite sure the white people also be comfortable with it because there are also white people. But you know, I'm telling you the power of reflecting the image of who you are and Canada now is. I mean how many persons is Black, how many other visible minorities? So that's the image it has to—it has to show it.

Community responses

Agencies can also encourage community collaboration and involvement and facilitate group self-organization (Hodge, 2005). Some respondents discussed the importance of recognizing the cultural community of clients as the experts on the issues that they face, and they should be involved in approaches that address these issues. Furthermore, some respondents suggested that social workers can benefit from interacting with the community to learn about its needs and how its capacities can be built. They can learn from community leaders (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2000a; Hodge, 2005), challenging their ideas and gaining greater insight into the dynamics of the community. Community members can also be involved in service provision. Treating community members as partners and discussing different approaches with the community rather than imposing projects on them can result in more positive outcomes, as one respondent stated:

Having them be the leaders in the way that they want to be represented, in the way that they want to be integrated into this community, what they want to retain, what they want to let go of. These are all issues, I think, because it's affecting them. They should take the leadership role … and not a token representation either, but a true representation of people from the community.

CONCLUSION

There are a number of documented instances in which Muslims face many obstacles when seeking social services. The agency provides the basic tools needed to survive in the Western world, such as employment services, educational tutors, and family counseling, yet these tools are not entirely formatted to suit the cultural differences found in an Islamic community. As well, it is vitally important that service providers and the agency be aware of the special difficulties faced by some Muslim clients, and consciously avoid making cultural errors. This includes being sensitive to issues of racism and relocation, as well as cultural values and religious traditions. When dealing with Muslim immigrants and refugees, language can be a huge barrier for both client and practitioner, and it is essential that agencies be dedicated to clear communication for both parties. More than anything, agencies must be flexible in their approach to clients, celebrating and accommodating the cultural differences of Islam.

Ultimately, it is cultural sensitivity that is of the utmost importance. Both the agency and service providers need to familiarize themselves with different Islamic cultural traditions and, rather than judge or scorn the unfamiliar, they should welcome the diversity and adapt services to best fit the culture. Canada prides itself on its acceptance and is referred to as a cultural mosaic. Social services need to incorporate these Canadian ideals into practice and policy by rejecting cultural assumptions and stereotypes, and realizing that different cultures will face adversity in different ways. Thus, there is no all-encompassing way in which to provide families with mental, physical, and emotional aid. Religion is an enormous aspect of the Muslim lifestyle for some, and so prayer practices should not be merely tolerated, but be a planned part of a social workers' agenda. By evolving agency actions in this way, the client is guaranteed the best possible service and help, which is truly the objective of the social service agency (Perez-Koenig, 2001).

More generally, social service work with some Muslim people needs to be adapted to Muslim values, rather than added on as a graft upon prevailing social work knowledge (Devore & Schlesinger, 1996). As a starting point, this can occur in three ways. First, social workers should be familiar with the basic beliefs, values, and rituals of Islam as it is practiced in the client's milieu. This article sheds light on some important aspects in this regard. Future research might develop a second, related area of inquiry: the myriad processes in which social workers could learn from the client the relative significance of religion and the manner in which it could be integrated into a helping relationship. In both cases, social work practice enters into a richer sense of the depth and the breadth of the Muslim human condition. In addition, future research may focus on the different attributes of Muslim communities and provide insight regarding social work practice with Sunni, Shi'a, Ahmadi, and Ismaili communities, as well as the different needs of second- and third-generation Muslim immigrants. Finally, research could begin to think about generic cross-cultural principles of working with religious clients, and the lessons that can be mutually applied transculturally, transnationally, and across religious traditions.