Gender differences and equality issues in Europe: critical aspects of gender mainstreaming policies

Abstract

Gender mainstreaming is the major global strategy for the promotion of gender equality. Clear intergovernmental mandates for gender mainstreaming have been developed for all the major areas of work of the United Nations and the European Commission, including disarmament, poverty reduction, macro-economics, health, education and trade. The evaluation of equal opportunities mainly focuses on qualification measures for unemployed women and improvements in childcare facilities, and on consideration of gender mainstreaming in other policy areas as well as macro-economic effects on employment and unemployment of women. It is evident that the promotion of qualification measures and childcare facilities increases the activity rate of women, although there remain doubts about the quality and sustainability of many measures and the impact on families. In particular this article focuses on the relation between gender mainstreaming and equality issues to examine whether and how the debate on the topic is a real way to improve equality without missing gender differences and women's rights.

Keywords:

• gender
• equal opportunity
• gender mainstreaming
• European social policies

Notes

1. For example, women tend to suffer violence at the hands of their intimate partners more often than men; women's political participation and their representation in decision-making structures lag behind men's; women and men have different economic opportunities; women are over-represented among the poor; and women and girls make up the majority of people trafficked and involved in the sex trade (United Nations 2002).

2. For an expounding of the notion of citizenship with a gendered perspective, please see Lister (1997), Walby (1997), Arnot et al. (2000), Bleijenbergh et al. (2004).

3. See the contribution of Strandh and Nillson in Chapter 5.

4. Gender mainstreaming is a globally accepted strategy for promoting gender equality. Mainstreaming is not an end in itself but a strategy, an approach, a means to achieve the goal of gender equality. Mainstreaming involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities – policy development, research, advocacy/dialogue, legislation, resource allocation and planning, implementation and monitoring of programmes and projects. (Osagi UN), http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm.

5. Equality between women and men (gender equality) refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men and girls and boys. Equality does not mean that women and men will become the same but that women's and men's rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men are taken into consideration recognizing the diversity of different groups of women and men. Gender equality is not a women's issue but should concern and fully engage men as well as women. Equality between women and men is seen both as a human rights issue and as a precondition for, and indicator of, sustainable people-centred development. (Osagi UN), http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm.

6. Women and girls still represent 2/3 of the world's illiterates; fewer girls than boys finish primary school; women represent less than 15% of national elected officials; rural women are responsible for half of the world's food production and yet, globally, women own less than 1% of land. In some cases the so-called ‘gender gaps’ are to the detriment of boys. This is particularly the case in some regions where the educational performance and participation of boys is worse than that of girls (Ruprecht 2003).

7. For example in both the USA and Europe there has been pressure to introduce legislation to provide equal treatment for women at work, the implementation of which often depends on worker and other organizations (Acker 1989, Evans and Nelson 1989, Rees 1998). The European Union has passed a plethora of legally binding Directives as well as advisory Recommendations which require the equal treatment of women and men in employment and in employment-related activities. These Directives were passed not merely as a result of the interest of the European Commission, but as a result of political pressure from women activists (Rees 1998, Walby 2001).

8. Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes. They are context/time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a women or a man in a given context. In most societies there are differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making opportunities. Gender is part of the broader socio-cultural context. Other important criteria for socio-cultural analysis include class, race, poverty level, ethnic group and age: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm.