Exploring Factors and Disparities: Female Labor Force Participation in the Palestinian Regions: East Jerusalem, West Bank and Gaza Strip

Abstract

This paper investigates Female Labor Force Participation (FLFP) across the Palestinian regions of East Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. Utilizing data from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics spanning from 1999 to 2018, we employ logistic regression models and age-period-cohort analyses to examine the determinants and trends shaping FLFP. Despite a notable increase in FLFP rates in Gaza since 2008, East Jerusalem witnesses a declining trend, widening the gap between East Jerusalem and the West Bank/Gaza strip. Our investigation aims to elucidate these regional differences, considering both supply-side and demand-side factors. Supply-side factors encompass social and gender norms, as well as social structure, while demand-side factors include structural changes in the economy over time, the availability of public sector employment, predominant economic activities engaging women (services and agriculture), and the repercussions of economic shocks on FLFP (added worker effect), among other factors.

KEYWORDS: :

• Female labor force participation
• Palestine
• East Jerusalem
• Employment
• Age Period Cohort

JEL CLASSIFICATION CODES: :

• J01
• J4
• J61

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Editor and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments. Also, we would like to thank the participants in Al-Quds University Councils Twenty-Eight Meeting “Empowering & Developing Jerusalemite Community” Istanbul – the Republic of Türkiye, June 2022. All errors are own.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 The U-shape of FLFP may explain this phenomenon. In less developed economies with low GDP, where agriculture and other elementary jobs are the main economic activities, FLFP tends to be high. However, as the economy improves with the growth of industry and services sectors, FLFP declines due to the unavailability of suitable jobs for women. As the economy continues to develop, more employment opportunities become available for women (Tam, 2011).

2 Total number of observations remain for analysis is 797,529, distributed as a following: 448,812 in the West Bank (56%), 60,346 in East Jerusalem (8%), and 288,434 in Gaza Strip (36%).

3 J1 includes 21 neighborhoods and accounts for approximately 65% of the total Palestinian population of East Jerusalem (PCBS, 2017).

4 Since 1993 (Oslo Accord), the West Bank is divided into 3 areas. Area A is under Palestinian civil and security control in major cities, Area B grants civil control but shared security with Israel, and Area C is primarily under full Israeli civil and security control (Vishwanath et al., 2014). For more information, see www.btselem.org/topic/Area_c.

5 The West Bank includes the following districts (excluding East Jerusalem): Jenin, Tubas, Tulkarem, Nabuls, Qalqilya, Salfit, Ramallah, Jericho, Bethlehem and Hebron.

6 Gaza includes the following cities: North Gaza, Rafah, Der Albalah, Gaza-city and Khan Younes.

7 In some district, like Hebron, most of manufacturing activities are owned by family. Family business in Palestine represents more than 90% of economics activities (Habash & Baidoun, 2023; US, 2020) where family businesses might offer flexible work arrangements and childcare support, making it easier for women to balance work and family responsibilities (Al-Botmeh, 2015).

8 Figure A.1 in the appendix show the FLFP behavior among Palestinian women in East Jerusalem in J1 and J2 areas over the period 1999-2018.

9 The World Bank report (2018) points to several factors that contribute to increasing obstacles to skilled women’s employment opportunities in the Palestinian territories, such as Legislation and regulations, lack of affordable childcare, social norms, and the tradeoff between career development and family obligations, restricting female employment during night shifts, discriminating in hiring practices, commuting problem and safety concerns, among other factors. For more details see: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/977921537274068902/pdf/129981-WP-PUBLIC-Enhancing-Job-Opportunities-for-Skilled-Females-in-the-Palestinian-Territories-Final-Report.pdf.