Democracy and Defence in Latvia

Abstract

Latvia's accession to NATO in April 2004 represents the successful culmination of a thirteen year process of defence transformation. New Latvian armed forces and a defence ministry have been created, a constitutional and legal framework for democratic civil–military relations has been established, and military–society relations have been transformed. Problems do remain in Latvian defence reform. The resources available for the continued development of the armed forces are constrained while Latvia faces continued tensions between providing, training and funding forces for participation in multinational missions and the need to maintain and develop its own national defence capabilities. Nevertheless, given the base from which it started, Latvian progress in defence reform has been remarkable.

Notes

1. NATO Parliamentary Assembly, Committee Reports, European Security: The Baltic Contribution (November 1998), p. 12.

2. The International Defence Advisory Board for the Baltic States (IDAB), Final Report, (February 1999). The Board was established in 1995 at the request of the Baltic Defence Ministers to advise and assist with Baltic defence and security reform.

3. Andrew Cottey, Timothy Edmunds & Anthony Forster, ‘Introduction: The Challenge Democratic Control of Armed Forces in Postcommunist Europe’, in Andrew Cottey, Timothy Edmunds & Anthony Forster (eds), Democratic Control of the Military in Postcommunist Europe: Guarding the Guards (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2002), p. 4.

4. These are: The National Security Law (2001); The Mandatory Military Service Law (1997); The Law on the National Guard of the Republic of Latvia (l993); The Law on Participation of the National Armed Forces of Latvia in International Operations (1995); The Law on the National Armed Forces (1999); The State Defence Financing Law (2001); The Law on Status of Foreign Armed Forces in the Republic of Latvia (1997); and The Alternative Service Law (2002).

5. See NATO Parliamentary Assembly, The Baltic Contribution, and the findings of an expert group, headed by Major General H. A. Kievenaar, US Army, in the Baltic States, Latvian Assessment Document (NATO Unclassified) or the ‘Kievenaar Study’, 1997. Available at http://www.naa.be (accessed).

6. International Defence Advisory Boad, Final Report, p. 6.

7. Republic of Latvia, Minister Cabinet, Security Concept of the Republic of Latvia (2002).

8. IDAB, Final Report, p. 4.

9. Republic of Latvia, Minister Cabinet, The National Defence Concept of the Republic of Latvia (6 June 1997). This document presents in more detail the defence aspects of security outlined in the security concept.

10. Republic of Latvia, Defence Ministry, Basic Principles of the Defence System of Latvia. Total Defence and Territorial Defence (1999); and Michael H. Clemmesen, ‘Territorial Defence in the Baltic Defence College,’ Baltic Defence Review, 3 (2000), pp. 83–86.

11. See K. G. H. Hillingso, ‘Defensibility’, Baltic Defence Review, 1 (1999), pp. 1–4; and Robert Dalsjo, ‘Baltic Self-Defence Capabilities—Achievable and Necessary, or Futile symbolism?’, Baltic Defence Review, 1 (1999), pp. 11–15.

12. Eitvydas Bajarunas, ‘Baltic Security Co-operation: A Way Ahead’, Baltic Defence Review, 3 (2000), pp. 43–62.

13. Central European Review, 9 August (1999), p. 23.

14. IDAB, Final Report, p. 6.

15. Christopher Donnelly, ‘Reshaping Armed Forces for the 21^st Century’, NATO Think Piece, 10 August (2001), p.14. Available at http://www.nato.int/docu/articles/2000/a000913a.htm (accessed). See also Michael H. Clemmesen, ‘Before Implementation of the Membership Action Plan: Baltic States? Defence Development Until the Present’, Baltic Defence Review, 2 (1999), pp. 35–42.

16. Baltic Defence College, Information, Department of Strategy and Political Studies, (1999).

17. Ilmars Viksne, ‘Formation of the NDA’, Baltic Defence Review, 3 (2000), pp. 17–29; and Republic of Latvia, Defence Ministry, Military Education System at the National Defence Academy, November (2000).

18. See M. Clemmesen ‘The Development of Regular Army Officers—An Essay’, Baltic Defence Review, 3 (2000), pp. 7–16.

19. Donnelly, Reshaping European Armed Forces.

20. Republic of Latvia, Defence Ministry, Aizsardzibas ministra zinojums Saeimai par valsts aizsardzibas politiku un Nacionalo brunoto speku attistibu 2000. gada, pp. 44–48.

21. Republic of Latvia, Defence Ministry, Aizsardzibas ministra zinojums Saeimai, pp. 84–86.

22. Dietrich Genschel, High Level Leadership within the Defence Establishments of Democratic Societies, Lecture, Tartu University, Estonia, February (2000). General Genschel is Germany's representative on the International Defence Advisory Board.

23. IDAB, Final Report, p. 5.

24. Latvian Assessment Document, p. 93.

25. Defence Budget of Latvia in per cent of GDP, Latvian Ministry of Defence Website. Available at http://www.mod.lv/english/03budzets/01_01.gif (accessed).

26. Donnelly, Reshaping European Armed Forces.

27. ‘Kievenaar Study’, 1997.

28. See Robertas Sapronas, ‘BALTBAT and the Development of Baltic Defence Forces’, Baltic Defence Review, 2 (1999), pp. 55–70; and T.D. Moeller, BALTBAT—Lessons Learned and the Way Ahead’, Baltic Defence Review, 3 (2000), pp. 38–42.

29. See Debate on NATO Enlargement, Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate (Washington: US Government Printing Office), pp. 439–454, where the 2% achievement appears as an important consideration.

30. Republic of Latvia, Defence Ministry, Latvia's Membership Action Plan 2000; and Membership Action Plan. Latvia's Annual National Program 2001.

31. Republic of Latvia, Defence Ministry, Aizsardzibas ministra zinojums Saeimai, pp. 25–30; and Republic of Latvia, Defence Ministry, Trends of Defence Budget for 1999–2003 (1999).

32. IDAB, Final Report, p. 6.

33. M. H. Clemmesen, ‘Supporting States Advice and Defence Development’, Baltic Defence Review, 4 (2000), pp. 9–10.

34. For more on this typology see, Timothy Edmunds, Anthony Forster & Andrew Cottey, ‘Armed Forces and Society: A Framework for Analysis’, in Anthony Forster, Timothy Edmunds & Andrew Cottey (eds), Soldiers and Societies in Postcommunist Europe: Legitimacy and Change (Houndmills: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2003), pp. 9–14.

35. Public Opinion Survey 2000. Attitude toward military and defence issues. Available at http:// www.mod.lv/english/02.darbs/04.sab.php (accessed).

36. Public Opinion Survey 2000. Attitude toward military and defence issues. Available at http:// www.mod.lv/english/02.darbs/04.sab.php (accessed).

37. Public Opinion Survey 2000. Attitude toward military and defence issues. Available at http:// www.mod.lv/english/02.darbs/04.sab.php (accessed).

38. NATO Nations, Special Issue. Latvia (2001), p. 3. Major General Genschel, retired from the Bundeswehr, was a member of the International Defence Advisory Board.

39. Assessing the Applicants for NATO Membership: Final Report of a Study on the Membership Action Plan (MAP) States and ‘Second Wave’ NATO Enlargement (Groningen, Netherlands: Centre for European Security Studies, July 2001).

40. Assessing the Applicants for NATO Membership: Final Report of a Study on the Membership Action Plan (MAP) States and ‘Second Wave’ NATO Enlargement (Groningen, Netherlands: Centre for European Security Studies, July 2001).

41. Latvia, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Available at http://www.mfa.lv (accessed).