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Original Articles

Energy Security in the Broader Mediterranean

Pages 161-183 | Published online: 09 Jan 2009
 

Abstract

This article examines the evolving relationship in the energy field between states north and south of the Mediterranean. The focus is on energy security, with North African energy producers eager to export their hydrocarbons to European consumers, and EU member states keen to diversify their energy suppliers, and, in particular, avoid over-dependence on Russia for natural gas imports. There are separate discussions on trade in crude oil, natural gas and liquefied natural gas. Concerns over terrorist attacks on energy infrastructure and the heightened interest of NATO on issues of energy security in the Mediterranean are also examined.

Notes

1. Commission of the European Communities, Green Paper: A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy, Brussels, 8 March 2006, COM (2006) 105 final, available at http://ec.europa.eu/energy/green-paper-energy/index_en.htm accessed on 4 September 2007.

2. Barry Barton, Catherine Redgwell, Anita Ronne and Donald N. Zillman, Energy Security: Managing Risk in a Dynamic Legal and Regulatory Environment (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2004), p.5.

3. Barry Buzan, Ole Waever and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner 1998), pp. 22–5 and 95–106.

4. At the time of writing the Action Plan with the Palestinians was effectively frozen after the electoral success of Hamas and the ensuing turmoil in the Gaza Strip.

5. Katrin Bennhold, ‘Sarkozy's Proposal for Mediterranean Bloc makes Waves’, International Herald Tribune, 10 May 2007.

6. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the European Council and the European Parliament, An Energy Policy for Europe, Brussels, 10 January 2007, COM (2007) 1 final. See Annex I—EU International Energy Policy Priorities, available at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52007DC0001:EN:NOT accessed on 5 September 2007.

7. Bennhold, ‘Sarkozy's Proposal for Mediterranean Bloc’. NOTE: The ‘Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean’ was eventually launched at a summit meeting in Paris in July 2008. The Union included all EU member states. Sarkozy's original ambitious plans were not fully realised—for example, hopes to establish a Mediterranean Investment Bank had to be abandoned. Building on the ‘Barcelona Process’, the Union intends to focus on issues such as developing road and sea highways, depolluting the Mediterranean, and encouraging the use of solar energy.

8. ‘Turkey starts Diplomatic Attack on Oil’, Turkish Daily News, 18–19 August 2007.

9. Commission of the European Communities, An Energy Policy for Europe, p. 3.

10. See ‘Galsi Project: The New Route for Algerian Gas to Italy and Europe’. Presentation given by a representative of Edison, Chisinau, 11 May 2007, p.2, available at http://www.encharter.org/fileadmin/user_upload/document/Galsi.pdf accessed on 6 September 2007.

11. Commission of the European Communities, Commission Staff Working Document, EU Energy Policy Data, Brussels, 10 January 2007, SEC (2007) 12, p. 11, available at http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/documents_en.htm accessed 6 September 2007.

12. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Italy, May 2007, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Italy/Full.html accessed on 6 September 2007.

13. ‘Galsi Project’, Edison, p. 4.

14. ‘Sonatrach's Marketing Restrictions could Endanger Pipeline to Spain’, Alexander's Gas and Oil Connections: Company News: Africa, 12/14 (27 July 2007), available at http://gasandoil.com/goc/frame_cna_company.htm accessed on 6 September 2007.

15. ‘Piebalgs insists on EU Diversifying Gas Supplies’, New Europe, 15–21 April 2007.

16. Council of the European Union, Presidency Conclusions, Brussels, 8–9 March 2007, Brussels, 2 May 2007, 7224/1/07 REV 1 CONCL 1, paragraph 28, available at http://europa.eu/european_council/conclusions/index_en.htm accessed on 6 September 2007.

17. Council of the European Union, Presidency Conclusions, Brussels, 8-9 March 2007, Annex I, European Council Action Plan 2007–9.

18. The text of the Barcelona Declaration adopted at the Euro-Mediterranean Conference, Barcelona, 27–28 November 1995 is available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/euromed/bd.htm accessed on 6 September 2007.

19. For details see the EuroMed Info Centre, Cooperation in the Energy Sector, available at http://www.euromedinfo.eu/site.316.content.en.html accessed on 6 September 2007.

20. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Tenth Anniversary of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership: A Work Programme to meet the Challenges of the Next Five Years, Brussels, 14 April 2005, EuroMed Report 89, available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/euromed/publication/2005/report_89_en.pdf accessed on 6 September 2007.

21. Benita Ferrero-Waldner, European Commissioner for External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy, ‘Opening Speech—European Neighbourhood Policy Conference’, Brussels, 3 September 2007, REF. SPEECH/07/500, available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/conferences_2007_en.htm accessed on 6 September 2007.

22. EU-Egypt ENP Action Plan, March 2007, p.5, available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/documents_en.htm#3 accessed on 6 September 2007.

23. European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument, Algeria—Strategy Paper 2007–2013 & National Indicative Programme 2007–2010, available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/partners/enp_algeria.en.htm accessed on 6 September 2007.

24. ‘Sonatrach bows to EU Pressure to Open up Gas Supply Contracts’, Alexander's Gas and Oil Connections: Company News: Africa, 12/15 (21 August 2007), available at http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/frame_cna_company.htm accessed on 6 September 2007.

25. Energy Charter Secretariat, The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A Legal Framework for International Energy Cooperation, Brussels, September 2004, p.19, available at http://www.encharter.org/index.php?id=178&L=0 accessed on 6 September 2007.

26. ‘Commission to sign a Joint Declaration on Priorities for Energy Cooperation with Morocco’, Brussels, 23 July 2007, REF.IP/07/1157, available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/morocco/intro/index.htm accessed on 7 September 2007.

27. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Algeria, March 2007, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Algeria/Full.html US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Egypt, July 2006, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Egypt/Full.html and US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Libya, July 2007, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Libya/Full.html all accessed on 7 September 2007.

28. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Algeria.

29. Commission of the European Communities, EU Energy Policy Data, pp. 66, 54 and 59.

30. ‘Algeria on course to reach Gas Export Goal’, Alexander's Gas and Oil Connections: News & Trends: Africa, 12/15 (21 August 2007), available at http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/frame_nta_news.htm accessed on 7 September 2007.

31. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Libya.

32. Commission of the European Communities, EU Energy Policy Data, pp. 59, 70, 66, 56 and 54.

33. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Libya.

34. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Eastern Mediterranean, October 2006, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/East_Med/Full.html accessed on 7 September 2007.

35. BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2007 (June 2007), p.20, available at http://www.bp.com/productlanding.do?categoryId=6848&contentId=7033471 accessed on 7 September 2007.

36. Presentation by Fatih Birol, ‘World Energy Outlook 2005—Middle East & North Africa Insights’, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, DC, 15 November 2005, available at http://www.iea.org/textbase/speech/2005/csis.pdf accessed on 7 September 2007.

37. ‘Sonatrach's Marketing Restrictions could Endanger Pipeline’.

38. ‘Energy: Spain, Algeria resolve Gas Woes via Medgaz Deal’, ANSAmed, Madrid, 30 July 2007.

39. ‘The Sardinia Pipeline’, APS Review Gas Market Trends, 12 February 2007, available at http://www.thefreelibrary.com/THE+Sardinia+Pipeline-a0159189851 accessed on 10 September 2007.

40. ‘Nigeria—Trans-Sahara/Europe P/L’, APS Review Gas Market Trends, 13 August 2007, available at http://www.freelibrary.com/NIGERIA+-+Trans-Sahara%2fEurope+P%2fL-a0167520362 accessed on 10 September 2007.

41. Dino Mahtani and Ed Crooks, ‘Energy Groups eye Libyan Gas Deals’, Financial Times, 16 August 2007.

42. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Egypt.

43. ‘Turkey and Egypt Cooperate in Energy’, Anatolian News Agency, Istanbul, 16 February 2007.

44. See John Roberts, ‘Two Green Lights needed: Energy Connections between the Caspian, Turkey and Europe’. Paper presented at the International Natural Gas Conference and Exhibition, Ankara, 3–5 May 2007, p. 5.

45. Mark Mulligan and Javier Blas, ‘Repsol loses Algeria Gas Project’, Financial Times, 4 September 2007.

46. US Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs—Egypt.

47. Zeyno Baran, The Common Foreign and Security Policy and the Security of Energy Supplies, Hudson Institute, February 2007, p. 20.

48. ‘Libya—The LNG Business’, APS Review Gas Market Trends, 16 July 2007, available at http://www.freelibrary.com/LIBYA+-+The+LNG+Business-a0166414694 accessed on 11 September 2007.

49. Jonathan Stern, The New Security Environment for European Gas: Worsening Geopolitics and Increasing Global Competition for LNG, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, NG-15-October 2006, p. 21, available at http://www.oxfordenergy.org/books.php?&myflag=f&submit=Filter&searchfor=Gas accessed on 11 September 2007.

50. Stern, The New Security Environment for European Gas, p. 7.

51. Isabel Gorst, ‘Russian Naval Chief Calls for Mediterranean Presence’, Financial Times, 3 August 2007.

52. ‘NATO Report Says Russia Aims to Form a Gas Cartel’, International Herald Tribune, 14 November 2006.

53. ‘EU Minister Fears Russian-led Gas Cartel’, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Newsline, 11/15, pt.1, 25 January 2007.

54. Vladimir Socor. ‘Russia Poised to Lead an Evolving Cartel of Gas Exporting Countries’, Eurasia Daily Monitor (The Jamestown Foundation), 4/70, 19 April 2007.

55. Carl Mortished, ‘Algerians and Russians in Gas Talks’, The Times, 24 April 2006.

56. Stern, The New Security Environment for European Gas, p. 17.

57. Geoff D. Porter, ‘Islamist Terrorism and Energy Sector Security in Algeria’, Terrorism Monitor (The Jamestown Foundation), 5/12, 21 June 2007.

58. Porter, ‘Islamist Terrorism and Energy Sector Security’.

59. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, ‘Riga Summit Declaration issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in the Meeting of the North Atlantic Council, Riga, 29 November 2006’, Press Release PR/CP (2006), 150, Brussels, NATO, 2006.

60. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, ‘Active Endeavour Briefing—Combating Terrorism at Sea’, July 2006, available at http://www.nato.int/issues/active_endeavour/index.html accessed on 12 September 2007.

61. North Atlantic Treaty Organization, ‘Speech by NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, “Today's NATO and Why it matters”, Lloyds City Dinner, London, 5 September 2007’, available at http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/2007/s070905b.html accessed on 12 September 2007.

62. Andrew Monaghan, ‘Energy Security: What Role for NATO?’ Research Paper, Academic Research Branch, NATO Defense College, Rome, 29 October 2006, pp. 6–7, available at http://www.ndc.nato.int/download/publications/rp_29.pdf accessed on 12 September 2007.

63. Paul Gallis, ‘NATO and Energy Security’, CRS Report for Congress RS22409 (Congressional Research Service: The Library of Congress), 21 March 2006, p. 5.

64. James Giffen, ‘The European Union Looks to North Africa for Energy Security’, Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections: News & Trends: Africa, 12/16 (11 September 2007), available at http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/frame_nta_news.htm accessed on 21 September 2007.

65. ‘Algeria Aims to Tap Vast Sunbelt to Export Solar Energy to Europe’, Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections: News & Trends: Africa, 12/16 (11 September 2007).

66. See Newsletter of Observatoire Mediterraneen de l'Energie 33 (February 2007), p. 4, available at http://www.ome.org accessed on 11 September 2007.

67. Roberts, ‘Two Green Lights Needed’, p. 5.

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