https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0046-8012
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ABSTRACT
The concept of Normative Power Europe (NPE) has sparked widespread debate over the EU’s external relations and its role in world politics. Whist the EU studies community has engaged with the NPE literature and studied EU norm-entrepreneurship at theoretical and empirical levels, the NPE literature suffers from two major shortcomings: first, it falls short in uncovering the multifaceted nature of EU diffusion objects across different policy areas; second, the effectiveness of EU norm diffusion remains underexplored. To remedy these limitations, this article aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of the EU’s projection of normative power by drawing on analytical tools from diffusion literature. By doing so, this research argues that the EU’s projection of normative power in relation to other international actors can be conceptualised as a process of diffusion of EU norm-clusters in various policy areas. It also reconceptualises the impact of the EU’s normative power as varying diffusion outcomes. By undertaking an empirical case study of the EU–ASEAN security cooperation, this research adopts the analytical framework to unpack the EU’s projection of normative power and diffusion of security-related norm-cluster in relation to ASEAN.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 For instance, the conventional NPE literature focuses primarily on the EU’s promotion of single norms in international relations, exemplified by the EU’s diffusion of human rights (Erickson Citation2013), democracy (Powel Citation2009), sexual minority rights (Mos Citation2013), sustainable development (Lightfoot and Burchell Citation2005).
2 The initial discussion on NPE (Manners Citation2002) provided a brief discussion on norm diffusion in international relations, drawing on the international dimension of democratisation (Whitehead Citation2001), cultural diffusion on political learning in the democratisation of China (Kinnvall Citation1995), and the EU’s international network of relations (Manners and Whitman Citation1998).
3 Author interview with desk officer ASEAN and Afghanistan, Asia, Australia & New Zealand Unit European Parliament. Brussels. 17 February 2017.
4 Author interview with Head of Strategy Section, Security Policy Directorate, EEAS. Brussels. 15 May 2018.
5 Author interview with a former Expert for the EU CBRN CoE Project 46. London. 17 April 2019.
6 Author interview with the former Deputy Head of Mission, the EU Mission to ASEAN. Beijing. 3 November 2017.
7 Author interview with an EU official from DG Devco, Brussels. 3 February 2017.
8 In the context of the EU, Preventive Diplomacy was explicitly mentioned in a 1996 Communication as a way to address tensions through opening political dialogue with affected parties (European Commission Citation1996). The EU’s vision of PD was further explained in the 2003 European Security Strategy, which stressed “the need to be able to act before countries around us deteriorate, when signs of proliferation are detected, and before humanitarian emergencies arise. Preventive engagement can avoid more serious problems in the future” (Council of the EU Citation2003, p. 11). The 2016 EU Global Strategy highlighted the need to “redouble our efforts on prevention, monitoring root causes” in a “more connected, contested and complex world” (EEAS Citation2016). The document also stressed that “Early warning is of little use unless it is followed by early action. This implies regular reporting and proposals to the Council, engaging in preventive diplomacy and mediation by mobilizing EU delegations and Special Representatives, and deepening partnerships with civil society” (EEAS Citation2016).
9 A detailed introduction to the study group can be found at CSCAP, “Towards Preventive Diplomacy: promoting prospects for mediation and peaceful settlement of disputes in the Asia-Pacific”, available at: http://www.cscap.org/index.php?page=towards-preventive-diplomacy
10 Author interview with an EU official from DG Devco, Brussels. 3 February 2017.
11 Author interview with the former Deputy Head of Mission, the EU Mission to ASEAN, Beijing. 3 November 2017; Author interview with a former Member of Cabinet, HRVP. 15 May 2018.
12 In line with Cross’ argument, soft integration can be understood as “the development of a strongly held norm among actors to always deal with particular issues collectively and interdependently” (Cross Citation2011, p. 50). This process of harmonization does not necessarily require a supranational mandate but is based on member states’ desire to harmonize their regulations and laws (p. 51).
13 Author interview with desk officer ASEAN and Afghanistan, Asia, Australia & New Zealand Unit European Parliament. Brussels. 17 February 2017; Interview with ASEAN Desk Officer, EEAS. Brussels. 25 March 2017.
14 Interview with a former expert for the EU CBRN CoE Project 46. London. 17 April 2019.
15 Author interview with an EU official from DG Devco, Brussels. 3 February 2017. Author interview with the former Deputy Head of Mission, the EU Mission to ASEAN, Beijing. 3 November 2017; Author interview with a former Member of Cabinet, HRVP. 15 May 2018.
16 Author interview with the Head of Strategy Section, Security Policy Directorate, EEAS. Brussels. 15 May 2018.
17 Author interview with the Policy Officer for Asia, CSDP Policy, Partnerships and Agreements, CMPD, EEAS. Brussels. Brussels. 25 April 2018.
18 See ASEAN Secretariat’s report on the launch of 2nd phase of EU-ASEAN border management programme, available at: https://asean.org/eu-asean-launch-2nd-phase-of-border-management-programme/
19 See ASEAN Secretariat’s report on the launch of 2nd phase of EU-ASEAN border management programme, available at: https://asean.org/eu-asean-launch-2nd-phase-of-border-management-programme/
20 See the EU CBRN CoE Project 46 which has a dedicated component aiming to strengthen legal framework concerning CBRN risk management, available at: http://www.cbrn-coe46.eu/index.php/the-project/strengthening-legal-framework
21 This observation is confirmed by an author interview with a participant of the EA-MBMP project as well as by media reports, such as “Immigration heads’ meeting moots ASEAN common visa”, 13 August 2018, Border Management, available at: http://bordermanagement.net/?p=277; and “ASEAN ponders a common visa scheme”, 07 May 2017, Myanmar Times, available at: https://www.mmtimes.com/asean-focus/26000-asean-ponders-a-common-visa-scheme.html.
22 Author interview with the Regional Coordinator of the EU CBRN CoE for Southeast Asia, EU Delegation in the Philippines. 30 May 2019. Author interview with a Senior Expert of an EU CBRN CoE project for Southeast Asia. 30 June 2020.