Challenging the principles of ecotourism: insights from entrepreneurs on environmental and economic sustainability in Langkawi, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

Ecotourism is a normative concept defined and driven by generalized principles concerning local livelihoods and conservation of natural and cultural environments. Supply-side studies considering the applicability of these principles in practice are limited. In particular, an understanding of how entrepreneurialism shapes ecotourism is largely absent from the literature. We investigate the intersection of entrepreneurialism, ecotourism, and governance using a case study of actors at the Kilim Karst Geoforest Park (KKGP) in Langkawi, Malaysia, which has seen a rapid rise in entrepreneurial “ecotourism” activities. However, levels of competition between actors, their perceptions of ecotourism, and the challenges and tensions they face are unknown. To address this, a “hierarchy of entrepreneurship” is presented, grouping actors into three tiers: governing institutions, tour companies, and independent entrepreneurs, from whom qualitative data are elicited. Opinions and contestations between and among tiers are elucidated around themes including how understandings of ecotourism influence entrepreneurial strategies, and how challenges and tensions may inhibit the economic, social, and environmental sustainability of ecotourism at KKGP. The study demonstrates that the normative dogma guiding how ecotourism should be practised must be balanced against the diverse understandings, motivations, and capacities of ecotourism entrepreneurs on the ground and the effectiveness of governance systems.

KEYWORDS:

• Conservation
• entrepreneurship
• governance
• mangrove
• sustainable tourism
• tour operators

Acknowledgments

We thank all of the respondents that spared their time for interview, and three anonymous reviewers for making insightful comments that have strengthened this work. The research was supported by the National University of Singapore (R-109-000-128-133).

Disclosure statement

There are no conflicts of interest, and no financial benefits are expected to arise from this research.

Notes

1. The KKGP study site was identified serendipitously by two of the authors during a research trip to fulfill another purpose in March 2015. At the time, familiarity with the site was garnered through (1) week-long observations of the tourism operation while working in the mangrove forest, (2) informal interviews with boat drivers and research assistants, and (3) engagement with academics at the Langkawi Research Centre of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Subsequently, a new investigation into the KKGP ecotourism operation was designed (the present study).

2. Respondent specifics withheld due to sensitive nature of material.

Additional information

Funding

National University of Singapore [grant number R-109-000-128-133].

Notes on contributors

Benjamin S. Thompson

Benjamin S. Thompson is a PhD candidate in the Department of Geography, National University of Singapore. His research focuses on conservation financing approaches such as payments for ecosystem services, ecotourism, and corporate environmentalism. He is particularly interested in the conservation of coastal ecosystems – specifically mangrove forests and near-shore fisheries.

Jamie Gillen

Jamie Gillen is an assistant professor in Geography at the National University of Singapore. His recent research interests revolve around tourism's political expediency, the role of unconventional methods in undertaking research, and critiques of “the Asian Century”.

Daniel A. Friess

Daniel A. Friess is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography, National University of Singapore. He leads the Mangrove Lab (www.themangrovelab.com), investigating ecosystem services provided by mangrove forests, their stability under sea level rise and land cover change, and novel conservation approaches.