Platform empowerment: Facebook’s role in facilitating female micro-entrepreneurship in tourism

Abstract

Even though tourism and hospitality employ large numbers of women and female micro-entrepreneurship plays a significant role in sustainable tourism development, the proportion of female micro-entrepreneurs is low. Particularly in developing countries, barriers to female micro- entrepreneurship remain significant. This article explores how social media platforms like Facebook can empower female tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurs in developing and highly tourism-dependent economies. Employing a netnographic approach, data were collected in two stages: (1) A total of 3214 posts by female micro-entrepreneurs were gathered from two Facebook groups to identify dimensions of platform empowerment; (2) semi-structured interviews with twelve members of the two groups were conducted to further explore these dimensions. The findings show four ways in which Facebook supports empowerment processes and outcomes at individual and collective levels, namely as a (1) learning resource; (2) informal entrepreneurial ecosystem; (3) self-development tool; and (4) business development exchange. By identifying the role social media platforms play in bridging social policy gaps, this study contributes knowledge that is critical for a more inclusive development of sustainable tourism.

Keywords:

• Digital platforms
• micro-entrepreneurship
• female entrepreneurs
• Facebook
• sustainable development goals
• empowerment

Subject classification codes:

• Gender and sustainable business models in tourism

Introduction

Female entrepreneurship makes significant contributions to local economic development (Kelley et al., 2017; Hechevarria et al., 2019) and alters the dynamics of entrepreneurial activities (Noguera et al., 2013; Cardella et al., 2020), which is important for facilitating the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs) (UNWTO, 2022). However, sustainable development attempts are hampered by lingering misconceptions about women’s entrepreneurship and a lack of support for it, including in tourism contexts (Kimbu et al., 2021).

Although female workers dominate and contribute to the success of tourism and hospitality businesses, their roles as entrepreneurs are especially constrained in developing countries (Tambunan, 2017). Barriers include a lack of relevant knowledge and expertise in managing their businesses (Kimbu et al., 2019), the absence of government support (OECD, 2017), structural and cultural discrimination (Yoopetch, 2021), and the inability to obtain funding (ILO, 2022). Finding ways to foster female entrepreneurship is, therefore, a significant concern for policymakers in relation to sustainable tourism development, especially in developing countries that heavily rely on tourism, such as Thailand (Thakur & Walsh, 2013) or Sri Lanka, Nepal and the Maldives (Rashid & Ratten, 2020). More research that can guide such policymaking in relation to women’s tourism entrepreneurship is critically needed (Babbitt et al., 2015).

Gender is connected to power and privilege, and gender-related power dynamics are especially prominent in entrepreneurship contexts, with female entrepreneurs facing resource constraints, limited access to training and lack of social capital (Franzke et al., 2022) and being judged against masculine perceptions of entrepreneurial success (Figueroa-Domecq et al., 2020). The ability of female entrepreneurs to acquire market data, spot business opportunities, interact with potential clients and engage in business networking is greatly facilitated by mobile technology and social media platforms (Gössling & Hall, 2019; Crittenden et al., 2019; Kapinga & Suero Montero, 2017; UNESCAP , 2021). However, such platform empowerment, referring to the ways in which platform affordances mediate empowerment processes and outcomes (Kozinets et al., 2021), has not been sufficiently explored in the context of female entrepreneurship in tourism (Zhang et al., 2020).

To address this gap in the literature, our research is guided by the following question: What aspects of digital platforms empower female entrepreneurs? Building on empowerment theory (Zimmerman, 2000) and platform empowerment research (Kozinets et al., 2021), while also considering existing conceptualisations of entrepreneurial stages (Kor et al., 2007), this article explores how digital platforms, such as Facebook, enable women entrepreneurs in tourism to overcome barriers and find support in different stages of their entrepreneurial journey. As such, the research constitutes a first step in introducing the concept of platform empowerment to the tourism entrepreneurship literature, while also adopting a gendered lens, a developing country focus, and a sustainable tourism policy perspective.

Literature review

Female entrepreneurship in tourism

Female entrepreneurs play an important role in economic development (Minniti, 2010). In tourism, they make pivotal contributions to local destination products and services by fostering innovation and supporting job generation (Ball, 2005; Fu et al., 2019). Female entrepreneurship in hospitality and tourism has been identified as a major area of concern in the tourism literature (e.g. Poulaki et al., 2021; Ribeiro et al., 2021; Tajeddini et al., 2018). A growing number of studies (e.g. Zampetakis et al., 2017; Yoopetch, 2021), therefore, addresses the need to understand factors that foster or hinder tourism-related entrepreneurial activities among women.

Tourism is dominated by micro- to small-sized and family-owned businesses, particularly in developing countries (Babbitt et al., 2015; Bosma & Kelley, 2019; Figueroa-Domecq et al., 2022). Female tourism micro-entrepreneurs are often owners of informal businesses (ILO, 2022), which are unregistered or involve undeclared employment and can therefore add vulnerability and opportunity for exploitation (Williams & Horodnic, 2020). For example, female micro-entrepreneurs who operate in informal economy sectors (e.g. selling food to tourists) have limited access to education and training, financial resources, technology and social capital due to discriminatory social and cultural norms (Cakmak et al., 2018). Female tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurs are therefore not only challenged because of gender bias but also because of bias against the types of businesses they own and manage. Madanaguli et al. (2021) highlight the gaps in the existing entrepreneurship in rural hospitality and tourism literature and suggest more attention should be placed on small businesses and female entrepreneurship, especially women micro-entrepreneurs in Asian countries. Figueroa-Domecq et al. (2020) add that there is also a need for feminist perspectives that challenge neoliberal and masculine notions of entrepreneurship as motivated by self-interest, of entrepreneurs being characterised by ambition, strength, competitiveness, and narrowly defined skillsets and of empowerment being solely achieved through economic income. While existing literature points to the significant role of empowerment in encouraging female tourism micro-entrepreneurship in Asia (Yoopetch, 2021), concrete pathways to its achievement remain unidentified.

Female entrepreneurship and empowerment

Although the entrepreneurship literature remains biased in terms of gender (Kabeer, 2005), the deep institutional roots of bias against women in the entrepreneurial ecosystems (Motoyama et al., 2021) and specifically gender equality within entrepreneurship (Ladge et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019) have become important research areas that recognise the significant role of women in entrepreneurship, especially in developing countries. Discriminatory socio-cultural values and traditions, obligations tied to motherhood, entrepreneurial stereotypes, cultures and social norms, limited access to information networks and assistance, capital investment and financial literacy and lack of empowerment are common constraints for female entrepreneurs (Naidu & Chand, 2017; Thakur & Walsh, 2013; Wu et al., 2019). Of these, lack of empowerment remains a crucial factor in curtailing female entrepreneurship (Kobeissi, 2010).

Empowerment is defined as increasing the capacity of an individual to control financial, intellectual, and tangible resources and beliefs, attitudes and values (Kabeer, 2005). Women empowerment refers to women’s ability and efforts to understand, express, access and possess their required resources (Andrea, 2016) and opportunities to partner with others to achieve goals (Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995). Scholars (e.g. Stromquist, 2015; Turner & Maschi, 2015) highlight the significance of gender empowerment and empowerment for gender equality, especially in the context of women entrepreneurship (Kobeissi, 2010). Empowerment in the context of entrepreneurship can be defined as the process of raising individuals’ capacity to start, grow and manage their own businesses, as well as participate in economic activities as entrepreneurs (Al-Dajani & Marlow, 2013). Empowerment in entrepreneurship involves three dimensions: personal or psychological empowerment (e.g. self-esteem, self-confidence and locus of control), resource empowerment where individuals gain the ability to acquire, control and manage resources, and finally, collective empowerment when people support and help others in their wider group/ communities (Wood et al., 2021; Ye & Yang, 2020). Importantly, empowerment includes both processes and outcomes: empowering processes include “participating in community organisations, collective decision making, shared leadership, and collective action to access government and other community resources”; while outcomes are “the consequences of empowering processes” (Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995: 570).

Empowerment is typically discussed in connection with realising initial entrepreneurship ambitions. Given the challenging position of female entrepreneurs, we argue that it is necessary across all stages of entrepreneurship. The literature identifies three stages of entrepreneurship: latent, nascent and growth stages (Cunningham et al., 2021; Kor et al., 2007; GEM, 2019). The latent entrepreneurship or early stage refers to individuals who recognise new business opportunities and want to be self- employed (Bonte & Piegeler, 2013). Nascent entrepreneurs are those individuals who have developed initial business opportunities and have started activities, such as developing a business plan, learning about the external environment, increasing their capabilities and establishing relationships with customers and suppliers that enable the creation of a new business (McCann & Vroom, 2015). Finally, growth entrepreneurship refers to the phase after the establishment of the business venture in the market in which entrepreneurs focus their efforts on identifying and exploiting ongoing and emerging business opportunities (Cunningham et al., 2021). How social media platforms empower female entrepreneurs across these stages is currently unknown.

Platform empowerment

A digital platform is an internet-based technology that allows businesses or individuals to connect and exchange data, knowledge and experiences (Hsieh & Wu, 2019). Kozinets et al. (2021) summarise the empowering role of online platforms as pertaining to strengthening or enabling abilities and providing collective spaces. Ye and Yang (2020) highlight two potential outcomes of platform empowerment: the bridging of digital divides and the promise of greater social inclusion. Digital platforms thus provide the foundations for entrepreneurial ecosystems by offering a network for communication, exchanges of information and resources and opportunities for coordination (Elia et al., 2020). In other words, platform-mediated entrepreneurial ecosystems facilitate a shared knowledge environment into which entrepreneurs can tap, particularly in the development process of their entrepreneurship journey (Zaheer et al., 2019).

Digitalisation has become one of the most critical factors contributing to new business ventures (Battour et al., 2022; Kraus et al., 2022), especially in tourism (UNWTO, 2018). Digital platforms not only allow travel and tourism businesses to build competitive advantages (e.g. increasing productivity, effective marketing, cost and revenue management) but also facilitate infrastructure and services for collaboration and cooperation among stakeholders in tourism (Abou-Shouk et al., 2013; Buhalis et al., 2014). The tourism literature recognises that digital platforms such as social media sites add value to tourism micro-entrepreneurship (e.g. facilitating online public forums, commercial transactions and administrative services, advertising and customer service) (Ditta-Apichai et al., 2020).

Digital platforms can empower women entrepreneurs by breaking cultural barriers and overcoming the challenges of time, location and process of doing business (Shah & Malik, 2022). Particularly, social media sites like Facebook have become important tools for sharing economy entrepreneurs to form communities and business networks (Hardy et al., 2021). The affordability, accessibility, focus and speed of social media help female tourism micro-entrepreneurs remain competitive, generate business growth and build and maintain friend-based relationships with customers (Olsson & Bernhard, 2020). Additionally, micro-entrepreneurs can use social media to derive effectiveness indicators, including through benchmarking (Cheing et al., 2020). However, women entrepreneurs in small businesses can encounter challenges in social media use for business purposes because of “limited resources, the need for new digital skills, digital stress because of the demand for online presence, and scanning and maintenance of social media” (Olsson & Bernhard, 2020, p. 378).

Despite the growing number of studies regarding the use of social media in facilitating entrepreneurship, the extent to which social media platforms support the needs of micro- entrepreneurs themselves and foster sustainable community development via micro- entrepreneurship (Morais et al., 2017) is unclear. Furthermore, there is a specific lack of research on platform empowerment in relation to female entrepreneurs (Olsson & Bernhard, 2020) and in terms of its relevance across the entrepreneurial development process (Hsieh & Wu, 2019; Kraus et al., 2022). In light of the increasing pervasiveness of digital entrepreneurship ecosystems (Elia et al., 2020), the role of specific platforms in empowering micro-entrepreneurship in general, and specifically in supporting the activities of female tourism micro-entrepreneurs needs to be explored.

Methodology

Study context

Thailand is Southeast Asia’s second-largest economy, with a high proportion of revenue generated by tourism (Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2018). As a tourism-dependent developing country, it critically relies on female tourism micro-entrepreneurs. Nevertheless, Thai women face many obstacles that impede their entrepreneurial endeavours.

The gender gap index in Thailand was 0.7080 in 2020, pointing to systemic inequality (Country Economy, 2021). While recent national gender equality policies and acts exist (e.g. the Gender Equality Act 2017–2021, the 12th National Economic and Social Development plan 2018– 2037 and Thailand’s 20-Year National Strategy), they are largely ineffective because gender inequality is rooted in the nation’s culture and deeply engrained in social values (Kattiyapornpong & Cox, 2018). Persistent gender gaps continue to impede Thailand’s development and socio-economic growth (World Bank, 2023). Despite persisting gender inequality, Thailand is one of nine countries in which women report entrepreneurial behaviours at levels equal to or greater than those of men (GEM, 2019). However, like in other developing nations, Thai women’s entrepreneurship is largely confined to small-scale enterprises, and especially female tourism micro-entrepreneurship is often informal and undeclared (Williams & Horodnic, 2020). Women’s entrepreneurial motivation in Asia differs from that of Western females in that Asian women are often motivated by socioeconomic factors (i.e. financial situation, lack of education and limited work opportunities) (Franzke et al., 2022). This means that many Thai women are forced into micro-entrepreneurship for lack of other options and to make ends meet.

On the positive side, personal circumstances (i.e. marital status, desire for autonomy and independence) (Thakur & Walsh, 2013), and entrepreneurial behaviours (i.e. proactiveness, innovativeness and risk-taking) (Kungwansupaphan & Leihaothabam, 2019) are key facilitators of Thai female entrepreneurship. However, a lack of business opportunities and low financial literacy, restricted capital investment, family succession issues, information network access problems and socio-cultural discrimination are major barriers for Thai female entrepreneurship (Lawson, 2019; Leelakasemsant & Boonchoo, 2017). Although there are no formal restrictions from religious organisations or beliefs affecting female entrepreneurship (Thakur & Walsh, 2013), government policies, financial support and capacity for entrepreneurship are the most prominent constraints that disproportionally affect Thai women’s entrepreneurship (Guelich, 2020). Consequently, recent government support programmes have been established to promote Thai female entrepreneurship, such as receiving training programmes from the local government, providing market information and opportunities for business matching through trade shows, and a government financial support programme (Kungwansupaphan & Leihaothabam, 2019).

A recent study by Yoopetch (2021) found that perceptions of empowerment and self-efficacy significantly impact Thai women’s intention toward entrepreneurship in the hospitality industry, but existing government policies seem to do little to instil these perceptions. Studying active Thai female micro-entrepreneurs in tourism and hospitality can therefore contribute significantly to understanding what empowered them to overcome barriers and constraints (Bosma & Kelley, 2019).

Digitalisation plays a critical role in the tourism industry in Southeast Asia (Ratten, 2022; Sharma & Arora, 2022) and has tremendously impacted business ecosystems and entrepreneurial activities in Thailand. Social media penetration in Thailand is high across all generations (Statista, 2022), with Facebook being the primary platform. Thailand is ranked 8th in the world in terms of Facebook users (Facebook, 2021), with females accounting for approximately 52.5% of Thai Facebook users (Statista, 2022). Since social media play an integral part in all aspects of Thai life and act as an important catalyst for business in Thailand (Bangkok Post, 2018), Thailand serves as an ideal context for studying platform empowerment in relation to female tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurs.

Study design

Netnography, a qualitative research method particularly suited to studying online interactions and gaining deep, cultural understandings (Kozinets, 2020), was used to explore how Facebook helps Thai female entrepreneurs overcome barriers, find support and enhance micro-entrepreneurship opportunities for tourism- and hospitality-related businesses. Studying empowerment in this context requires a deep and embedded understanding of entrepreneurial culture and access to a difficult-to-reach population. Netnography focuses on online traces as data sources, combines several techniques to collect data and therefore allows for data and method triangulation, and permits the researcher to avoid the prolonged participation in real-world field sites required by ethnography by replacing it with intense immersion in online data sites (Kozinets, 2021). Netnography has been extensively applied in tourism (Whalen, 2018; Kozinets & Gretzel, 2022). While it offers flexibility in terms of data sources and collection approaches, it promotes specific guidelines that ensure rigor and compliance with research ethics (Kozinets, 2020).

Data sources

Netnography emphasises data source selection based on “relevance, activity, interactivity, diversity and richness” criteria (Kozinets, 2020: 226-229). During netnography’s reconnaissance phase, popular social media platforms (LINE, Reddit, LinkedIn, WeChat, etc.) were considered but Facebook quickly emerged as the most widely and actively used platform among Thai female tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurs. Seven Facebook groups related to tourism and hospitality businesses were more closely screened and two were finally selected based on their number of engaged members, their lively and recent discussions, and their status as public groups without membership fees:

Facebook Group 1 (G01): Bubble pudding and soybean curd by madam drink (พดุ ดิ้งไข่มุกและเตา้ ฮวย, pronounced “Pud Ding Kai Mook Lae Thao Huay”, source: https://web.facebook.com/groups/2636296703305969)

This group is for people interested in learning about dessert and special drink recipes. It was founded by a young female entrepreneur in 2020 to share her recipes, business knowledge and entrepreneurial journey. The group provides a friendly environment for members to learn about recipes and basic entrepreneurial knowledge (e.g. marketing techniques, cost of sales, profit and selling price). Members are free to ask questions and share problems, knowledge, ideas, techniques, tips and experiences. The group is inclusive, but most members are women. As of 31 December 2021, there were 18,978 members.

Facebook Group 2 (G02): Sufficiency Bakery (เบเกอรี่พอเพียง, pronounced “Be ke xrī̀ phx pheīyng”, source: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1225224737636379/?hoisted_section_header_type=recently_seen&multi_permalinks=2188356037989906)

This public group is for those interested in selling baked goods. It aims to provide an open space for anyone to ask questions, share problems and entrepreneurial tips, pitch ideas and teach baking techniques. Large quantities of posts are created regularly as members can post freely. The group was created in 2019 by a female entrepreneur. As of 13 December 2021, there were 568,900 mostly female members.

Data collection

Netnographic research involves three distinct data collection “movements”: immersion, investigation and interaction (Kozinets, 2020). This research employed all three and used a two- stage data collection process.

Data collection in Stage 1 included immersion and investigation and was completed over a four-month period (September–December 2021). Stage 1 started with an intensive immersion in the groups’ activities by two members of the research team who are Thai women and have worked with tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurs for several years but are not themselves entrepreneurs. They first participated in the online communities as members to observe post contents/formats and member interactions. The two researchers documented their journey in immersion journals.

The second part of Stage 1 involved the systematic investigation of existing interactions and exchanges among group members. At the beginning of the investigation movement, the researchers introduced themselves to the online communities to obtain permission from the group administrator, declare their presence, and explain the study purpose. Investigative data encompassed all posts available from the inception of the Facebook group up to the end of investigative data collection in December 2021. Investigative data collection started with the most recent posts and ended when theoretical saturation was reached. In total, 3214 posts (973 for Group 1 and 2241 for Group 2) were collected manually by two researchers. The posts in Thai were copied and pasted into a spreadsheet and then translated into English. No personally identifiable information was recorded.

Stage 2 further explored the empowerment processes and outcomes that had emerged in Stage 1 using semi-structured interviews, which also served as member checks. An invitation message was posted in both Facebook groups and 20 Thai female tourism and hospitality micro- entrepreneurs responded. These potential participants were pre-screened, and the final sample was selected to represent different age groups, entrepreneurial backgrounds, and entrepreneurial stages (four interviewees per stage) as indicated in Table 1. The interactive data collection involved twelve semi-structured interviews that were conducted between 20 December 2021, and 7 January 2022. The interviews included questions like: “Could you share your experience as a member of this group”? and “How does the group help your business”?. The interviews were conducted online in Thai, were structured to accommodate the busy schedules of micro-entrepreneurs and lasted about 20 min each. They were recorded, transcribed and translated into English.

Table 1. Summary of interviewee characteristics.

No.	Code	Age	Background/previous career	Entrepreneurship stage
1	F01	30–40	Housewife	Nascent
2	F02	50–60	Business owner: food and beverage	Nascent
3	F03	50–60	Office worker and family business	Growth
4	F04	20–30	Family business	Nascent
5	F05	40–50	Housewife and ex-office worker	Latent
6	F06	30–40	Office worker	Latent
7	F07	30–40	Online business owner: food and beverage	Growth
8	F08	30–40	Farmer and housewife	Nascent
9	F09	50–60	Online business: health-related products	Growth
10	F10	30–40	Government officer	Latent
11	F11	30–40	Housewife and ex-small business owner	Latent
12	F12	20–30	Office worker and ex-small business owner	Growth

Data analysis

Principles of thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2021) guided the data analysis. In Stage 1, the investigative data were uploaded into NVivo and manually coded. Observational notes and reflections from the immersion journals helped with the interpretation of posts and labelling of themes but were not formally coded. The emerging themes were subsequently complemented and verified with data from Stage 2, which was also manually coded in NVivo. Accordingly, the findings represent all data across both data collection stages.

The two Thai researchers who had collected and translated the data also coded the data. Codes and emerging themes were established by the individual researchers and then discussed in several rounds with the third member of the research team, who provided an outsider perspective and audited the coding process. Thus, data quality and trustworthiness during the research process were ensured through (1) following netnography guidelines in terms of research ethics and the employment of data and method triangulation; (2) conducting member checks as part of the interviewing process; and, (3) a peer audit by the third research team member.

Data codes pertaining to different platform uses were translated into platform affordances and then consolidated into platform empowerment themes (as illustrated in Table 2). The emerging themes were classified into processes and outcomes (Al-Dajani & Marlow, 2013; Zimmerman, 2000), which were further subdivided into individual (combining personal and resource empowerment) and collective levels of empowerment (Ye & Yang, 2020). Finally, their role across the entrepreneurship stages was identified (Kor et al., 2007).

Table 2. Coding examples.

Examples of translated posts and interview excerpts	First-order codes (Platform uses)	Second-order categories (Platform affordances)	Third-order themes (Platform empowerment)
“All information I need I can search from the posts” (F05)	Searching for information	Information access	Individual Level: Learning Resource
“My pudding didn’t set well, how could I fix it? Can I add more agar powder?” (G01, 6 December 2021).	Learning how to make things	Learning technical and business knowledge
“I learn how to sell my product online from the group members” (F08)	Gaining general business knowledge
“I share my knowledge in our community e.g., how to respond to customers.” (F02)	Sharing knowledge	Entrepreneurial knowledge transfer and mentoring	Collective level: Informal Entrepreneurial Ecosystem
“Let me explain the ways through which I have succeeded many times…” (G02, 20 June 2021)	Giving advice
“Thank you for cheering me up, I start selling my homemade cake now” (G02, 7 August 2021)	Finding emotional support	Emotional support and friendly atmosphere
“The first thing (I received) when joining this group is inspiration from other group members here, which I can say are now my friends.” (G01, 16 May 2021)	Finding inspiration and friendship

Findings and discussion

The findings illustrate distinct ways in which Thai female micro-entrepreneurs use the Facebook groups at different stages of their entrepreneurial journey to empower themselves and others, and to enhance their own and others’ business opportunities (Table 3).

Table 3. Summary of findings.

Entrepreneurial Stages	Platform-mediated female micro-entrepreneurship empowerment
	Empowerment processes				Empowerment outcomes
	Individual level: Learning Resource		Collective level: Informal Entrepreneurial Ecosystem		Individual level: Self- Development Tool			Collective level: Business Development Exchange
	Information access	Acquiring technical and business knowledge	Entrepreneurial knowledge transfer and mentoring	Emotional support and friendly atmosphere	Self-confidence and independence	Social proof and role modelling	Career development	Power of networking and bargaining	Business opportunity enhancement
Latent	✔	✔	–	✔	✔	–	–	✔	–
Nascent	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	–
Growth	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔

Empowerment processes

Empowerment processes involve attempts to “gain control, obtain needed resources, and critically understand one’s social environment” (Zimmerman, 2000, p. 46). The findings illustrate two distinct ways in which the platform supports these processes: (1) as a learning resource that supports information access and knowledge and skills acquisition (individual level), and (2) as an informal entrepreneurial ecosystem that facilitates knowledge transfer, mentoring and support (collective level).

Individual level learning resource

One of the distinguishing aspects of women’s empowerment is the ability to access and possess necessary resources (Stromquist, 2015). Over 1000 posts highlight the diversity and usefulness of the information available via the groups, which is especially important for women entrepreneurs in the resource-scarce contexts of developing countries (Ribeiro et al., 2021). The Facebook groups fulfil this need for information access by offering a free, easily and ubiquitously accessible, friendly source of highly relevant and timely information.

I can search for a shared product photoshoot, for taking an order, important shipping information, or even the cost and how to calculate pricing. (G01, 16 May 2021)

Entrepreneurial skills and knowledge are important factors for growth, profitability and sustainability of micro-enterprises (Omerzel & Antončič, 2008; Kimbu et al., 2019). The findings show that the Facebook groups support knowledge and skill development, from which especially women in the early stages of the entrepreneurship process seem to benefit. Almost a third of the posts requested help in solving technical issues, such as how to fix a broken cake, how to measure a recipe in different sizes, ideas for decorating desserts, etc.

I have learnt a lot from the group such as what flour is used for what. In the past, I thought all kinds of flour are the same. (F04)

The Facebook communities help female entrepreneurs in latent and nascent entrepreneurship stages learn business basics. The friendly atmosphere of the communities allows group members to post questions and comments about topics like determining cost and setting prices, marketing and advertising, customer handling and revenue management.

When there is a problem with the cost and wholesale price, I will go to search if anyone has had this problem but if they don’t have it, you can post a question in the group. Other members will help out fixing the issues such as finding materials or ingredients with reasonable price from other sources. (F01)

Entrepreneurial knowledge acquisition is essential for women who want to establish and/or successfully manage and grow their own business (Hsieh & Wu, 2019; Zaheer et al., 2019), and the Facebook groups offer it freely and almost instantly. Thus, social media communities empower learning and skill development throughout the entrepreneurial journey.

Collective level informal entrepreneurial ecosystem

A shared knowledge environment provides critical elements for the development process of entrepreneurship (Zaheer et al., 2019), especially for women entrepreneurs in tourism and hospitality who often lack relevant knowledge and expertise in managing their businesses (Kimbu et al., 2019). Platforms specifically encourage the emergence of collective intelligence, an important foundation for entrepreneurial ecosystems (Elia et al., 2020). The Facebook groups serve as knowledge exchange platforms by enabling community members to share their business and technical skills, knowledge and expertise as well as their mistakes and misfortunes. Particularly, women entrepreneurs in the nascent and growth stages are willing and eager to share tips, techniques, general business knowledge and “war stories” to facilitate knowledge transfer.

Many people still have questions, such as …’When the pudding is finished, will it be okay to keep for the next two days?’ I then answer those questions (in this post), e.g., Let me explain the ways through which I have succeeded many times… (G01, 15 May 2021)

I shared my experiences to educate people in the group such as how to communicate to customers because some people on the page don’t know how to respond to customers. I also posted online marketing techniques such as the paid per clicks advertisement. (F02)

Entrepreneurial knowledge transfer is a critical component for the latent and nascent stages of the creation of micro tourism and hospitality ventures because they have limited access to traditional education and training sources and lack technology and social capital (Cakmak et al., 2018; UNESCAP, 2017). This commitment to free knowledge exchange stands in stark contrast to prevailing notions of cut-throat competition, intellectual property protection and revenue generation priorities in traditional entrepreneurship circles dominated by male entrepreneurs.

Importantly, women in non-western contexts often rely on networks of personal relationships in business practices to achieve outcomes (Zhang et al., 2020). By fostering social connections, the Facebook groups serve as a mentoring and support platform for female micro- entrepreneurs, compensating for the lack of institutional support structures in developing countries. Simultaneously, this platform-mediated entrepreneurial ecosystem provides opportunities for women to use their skills and expertise to support and help others (Wood et al., 2021; Ye & Yang, 2020). This enables and encourages women in the growth stage of entrepreneurship to act as mentors. The resulting informal mentorship includes both sharing and giving business advice (i.e. cost and selling techniques, advertising materials, such as photoshoots, packaging, online store management, accounting, customer care and shipping and delivery services).

I sometimes help people to recheck their wholesale price whether it is profitable and receive thanks from the group members. I feel happy helping others. (F09)

The role of platforms as knowledge transfer and mentoring ecosystems is especially important for driving digitalisation in tourism micro-entrepreneurship because female entrepreneurs frequently lack digital skills (Olsson & Bernhard, 2020). Digitalisation promotes new business ventures (Battour et al., 2022; Kraus et al., 2022), and often ones that are especially conducive to female entrepreneurship (Gössling & Hall, 2019).

The identified themes highlight the significant role of digital communities in offering emotional support. Digital platforms facilitate social inclusion (Ye & Yang, 2020). Our findings show that all members freely disclose their concerns and/or obstacles they have faced in operating their business to gain support from their peers when encountering problems, resulting in a friendly, supportive atmosphere. The investigative and interactive data showed that nascent and growth entrepreneurs also shared life lessons to cheer up sad and distressed members.

One of my long-time friends asked me for some free samples even though I had just started my little business. I then refused and that friends talked down to me. I felt so down. Did I do the right thing? (G02, 18 June 2020).

We support each other and encourage those who can’t sell and are discouraged. (F09)

Importantly, the friendly atmosphere is infused with business inspiration. A handful of members who had already started their business were very active in posting their daily business stories to motivate themselves and other group members.

The first thing (I received) when joining this group is inspiration from other group members here, which I can say are now my friends. Today I want to share my story in return… (G01, 16 May 2021)

Some members lighten up the content with humorous posts, for example photos of their family members with funny captions. Overall, the findings show that social media platforms operate on reciprocity principles and can support processes that psychologically empower individuals and larger social groups.

Empowerment outcomes

Perkins and Zimmerman (1995, p 570) describe empowerment outcomes as “the consequences of empowering processes”. Al-Dajani and Marlow (2013) stress the importance of non-economic outcomes, including self-identity formation and awareness of opportunities. Our research identifies outcomes for individual and collective levels and highlights the role of Facebook as (1) a self-development tool that leads to personal growth (individual level); and, (2) a business development exchange that supports collective action and whose use can result in enhanced business opportunities (collective level).

Individual level self-development tool

The ability to make decisions, exhibit a sense of personal control, and gain independence from patriarchal authorities are significant outcomes of empowerment at the individual level (Al- Dajani & Marlow, 2013; Zimmerman, 2000). For Thai female micro entrepreneurs, empowerment starts with personal empowerment. Increasing self-confidence was identified as an important outcome across all entrepreneurial stages.

I joined this group just to learn and earn extra income. Since joining the group, I have learnt more from the group, it helps increase my confidence. (F05)

Women with greater confidence in their entrepreneurship abilities are more likely to start businesses (Yoopetch, 2021). Additionally, the findings show that women in the nascent and growth stage of entrepreneurship expressed gains in independence.

I used to work for my family. During COVID-19, the money from the family business declined. It made me think of building my own business for my future stability…. This online business has become the main income to support myself since then. (F04)

The group posts emphasise female entrepreneurs’ need for social proof and digital platforms’ potential to provide it. Facebook groups are virtual, informal gatherings of like-minded people, making social proof easier to establish. Social proof can motivate people to act (Das et al., 2014) by convincing them that success is attainable.

My November sale volume reached 6000 pieces! It’s hard to reach this point, I was both tired and discouraged. There were many obstacles along the way but we could get through. Always tell yourself to be patient and not give up. It’s all about putting in effort. (G01, 7 December 2021)

The groups also celebrate their members. Some members have become role models to others based on their expertise and entrepreneurship performance. As illustrated by the below quote, role models can be instrumental in encouraging entrepreneurship behaviour.

There is a store (of a member) that I have admired in the group. It’s my role model and drives me to do my business. (F04)

Entrepreneurship contributes to the creation of career opportunities for women (Kelley et al., 2017; Hechevarria et al., 2019). In alignment with this literature, the interview data reveals career trajectories from hobbies to full-time careers mediated by the Facebook groups:

It’s an amazing feeling that this hobby can make me earn extra money. It also helps me relieve stress from being a housewife and raising our children full time at home. My husband encourages me to do it too. (F01)

The Facebook groups often helped these casual entrepreneurs establish an alternative career and turn hobbies into the main source of income.

I want to make it a career and have additional income for myself and a family (besides) being a housewife and farmer raising animals and farming. I learn how to sell online from friends in the group. (F08)

Interestingly, some female entrepreneurs in the growth stage expanded their online businesses to offline and built new careers in tourism and hospitality as a direct result of the encouragement and advice they received through the platform-mediated interactions.

During COVID-19, I only worked for 4 days, so I had some free time to start doing it [selling dessert online]. I’m opening a store now and it will be the main career in my retirement period the next 4-5 years because it is in a tourist destination. (F03)

I’m getting busier with online orders. I’m thinking of re-opening my own bakery, maybe with coffee, it is trendy now and can become a tourist attraction too. (F12)

Collective level business development exchange

UNESCAP (2021) recognises the significance of technology in overcoming the digital gender divide to promote female entrepreneurship and inclusive tourism. Digital platforms empower female entrepreneurs by enabling collaboration (Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995). Facebook groups help female entrepreneurs organise activities throughout all entrepreneurial stages (Elia et al., 2020; Kapinga & Suero Montero, 2017). The results show that the two Facebook groups help female micro-entrepreneurs build supplier networks. Community members frequently exchange information on trustworthy vendors who can supply goods and services at reasonable prices. They also come together to establish bargaining power and get group discounts from suppliers.

Hello, today we have special promotion for the “Madam Drink” page only. We offer unique designed stickers for pudding cups, all shapes and sizes with free shipping. You can check reviews and/or contact us at… (G01, 27 August 2021)

Accessible community resources and opportunities to form coalitions empower community members (Zimmerman, 2000). Our findings show that some women entrepreneurs in the growth stage proactively utilise the Facebook communities for business collaborations to increase their opportunities and expand their business.

Hello, I’m here today to invite friends who have a freezer size 13 queue or more and want to have extra income. I want to increase my launch points. If interested, please contact me at… (G01, 8 December 2021)

I sometimes had some large orders which I knew I could not do it by myself. I then posted some messages asking other members who can help me out. It was such a fun thing to be able to bake together and talk through the order on how we were going to finish it. I really enjoyed it. (F12)

Being proactive is one of the main success indicators of female entrepreneurs to survive and sustain their business performance (Kungwansupaphan & Leihaothabam, 2019). Pro-activity seems to be the norm in these Facebook groups and is facilitated by the various communication and networking affordances of the platform. Empowerment in terms of business development and enhancement opportunities afforded by the Facebook platform is therefore more concrete and wide-reaching than what typical entrepreneurship support policies provide.

What also comes through in all quotes is a unique female perspective on entrepreneurship beyond revenue generation and beyond traditional measures of success. Through positive role modelling, business support, peer mentoring and collective collaboration, women entrepreneurs can be sufficiently empowered to establish their own enterprises (Al-Dajani & Marlow, 2013) or improve their existing ones.

Conclusion

The research investigated the emerging concept of platform empowerment in the context of female tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurship. The results reveal multi-faceted platform empowerment processes and outcomes at the individual and collective level that enable women micro-entrepreneurs to not just survive but thrive throughout their entrepreneurial journeys. Importantly, it demonstrates social media platforms’ ability to overcome some shortcomings in social policies, at least in the short run.

Theoretical implications

The article contributes to the growing literature on the role of digital platforms and the notion of platform empowerment by adding entrepreneurial and gender perspectives to the existing activism focused arguments (Elia et al., 2020; Hsieh & Wu, 2019; Kozinets et al., 2021; Kraus et al., 2022). Specifically, the research identified four female entrepreneurship empowerment processes and five empowerment outcomes that are distinct from the platform-mediated consumer empowerment dimensions revealed by Kozinets et al. (2021) and Ward and Ostrom (2006). As such, it expands existing conceptualisations of platform empowerment. Identifying platforms as learning resources, informal entrepreneurial ecosystems, self-development tools and business development exchanges that promote empowerment at individual and collective levels also widens current notions of their role in entrepreneurship beyond networking, marketing, information search and crowdfunding uses (Olanrewaju et al., 2020). The study further highlights the emerging significance of digital platforms, such as Facebook, for increasing capabilities and resources of women entrepreneurs in tourism-dependent developing nations, thus stressing the role of female micro-entrepreneurship in tourism recovery and resilience building (Dias et al., 2022).

Further, Facebook enables female micro-entrepreneurs to build vibrant communities that empower them in multiple ways to start entrepreneurial ventures or ensure the success of their existing businesses. These communities challenge masculine and neoliberal notions of entrepreneurship by stressing support, sharing, caring, friendship, fun, openness and collective strength instead of individual power. The platform also empowers mentoring processes and outcomes in line with Morgenroth et al. (2015, p.465) motivational theory of role modelling and its three functions of “acting as behavioural models”, “representing the possible” and “being inspirational”. Consequently, the research contributes to the growing literature that seeks to change the outdated notions of female entrepreneurship that persist in the traditional entrepreneurship literature. By highlighting digitally mediated activities and successes of Thai women entrepreneurs, this paper also extends the body of knowledge in the emerging literature on women’s tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurship (e.g. Figueroa-Domecq et al., 2022; Kimbu et al., 2021; Ribeiro et al., 2021) and in relation to the role of digitalisation in tourism development (Gössling & Hall, 2019).

Practical implications

A shared knowledge environment like a Facebook group provides critical elements for the development process of entrepreneurship (Zaheer et al., 2019), especially for women entrepreneurs in the latent and nascent stages of the creation of micro tourism and hospitality ventures because they have limited access to traditional education and training sources (Cakmak et al., 2018; UNESCAP, 2017). Entrepreneurial skills and knowledge are important factors for growth, profitability, and sustainability of micro-enterprises (Omerzel & Antončič, 2008; Kimbu et al., 2019). Tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurship, such as food and beverage businesses, not only crucially contribute to local destinations and products and services innovation development (Ball, 2005; Fu et al., 2019, Yoopetch, 2021) but also foster the creation of new career avenues for women (Kelley et al., 2017; Hechevarria et al., 2019). This research illustrates that even simple ways of connecting female tourism and hospitality micro-entrepreneurs can spur entrepreneurial activity.

This research further strengthens the role of digital platforms in tourism previously identified in the literature (Abou-Shouk et al., 2013; Buhalis et al., 2014). The findings highlight that these platforms offer socially embedded entrepreneurial relationship-building capacities, both within and between groups of female entrepreneurs and suppliers. Women in a non-western context often rely on networks of personal relationships in business practices to achieve outcomes (Zhang et al., 2020). This research shows that such networks can be effectively extended through platforms. The connections and interactions offered by the digital platform thus help women micro entrepreneurs establish and scale-up their businesses (Hsieh & Wu, 2019).

This article also points to the role of micro-entrepreneurship in women’s general empowerment. In agreement with Kimbu et al. (2021), the research provides evidence that Facebook helps women take steps to increase self-confidence and feel more in control of their life (i.e. achieve financial independence). Accordingly, platform empowerment aids women entrepreneurs in overcoming constraints caused by societal demands (e.g., motherhood, social norms, and entrepreneurial cognitions and acceptance) (Naidu & Chand, 2017; Thakur & Walsh, 2013; Wu et al., 2019) and in fighting persisting gender stereotypes in tourism (Gewinner & Gretzel, 2022). In addition, entrepreneurship provides opportunities for women to use their skills and expertise to support and help others (Wood et al., 2021). The positive outcomes of women micro-entrepreneurship thus are not only financial gain, business enhancement and personal growth but also social capital (Zhang et al., 2019).

Social policy implications

Government, business and non-profit organisations invest heavily in sustainable and inclusive tourist development programmes. They recognise technology’s role in supporting these efforts, but concrete pathways for bridging digital gender divides are often missing from their agendas. This research shows that collaborations with existing, widely used platforms can create communities where women can learn skills, empower themselves, and find opportunities to start or improve their businesses in ways they are already familiar with and without additional technology or effort.

The findings reveal that female entrepreneurs demand more than training and local mentoring schemes. However, the results also indicate that female tourism and hospitality micro- entrepreneurs are not the helpless and passive subjects policymakers sometimes portray. The Thai women included in this study appropriated Facebook in innovative ways to create vibrant communities of like-minded others. Instead of promoting competitions that award entrepreneurial ideas, support programmes for female micro-entrepreneurship in tourism and hospitality should think of ways to successfully insert themselves into these already existing communities and contribute to conversations that will appreciate women’s unique perspectives and foster women’s entrepreneurial activities.

However, the research also points to the precarious nature of women’s entrepreneurship in Thailand. While Facebook clearly empowered these women, it only empowered certain kinds of micro-entrepreneurship that involved basic cooking skills, businesses with little capital investment, and entrepreneurial activities that can be performed within the home and while taking care of other responsibilities. Platform empowerment stresses neoliberal notions of agency and choice. This suggests that it cannot overcome larger structural issues, does not lead to social change and maybe even reinforces existing gender inequality. Ahl and Marlow (2021) point out that entrepreneurship constitutes a poor career choice for many women in the context of persistent structural discrimination, lack of welfare benefits and contrived aspirational role models. Consequently, platform empowerment is a short-term fix and cannot replace social policies to support the achievements of UNSDGs.

Research limitations and future research

This research is limited to Facebook and only looks at specific forms of platform-enabled female micro-entrepreneurship in Thailand. The specific results may not be generalisable but hint at important roles platforms play in affording micro-entrepreneurship for women that are transferable to other contexts. However, more research is needed that widens the specific research context to other social media platforms, other types of female entrepreneurship, and other cultural and economic environments so that the derived dimensions of platform empowerment can be validated or, if necessary, expanded.

Netnography affords a longitudinal perspective through its integration of archival social media data; however, in this particular study, the groups were fairly new. Continuing to follow the activities of these and other Facebook groups over longer periods of time would provide important insights regarding group dynamics and their impacts on platform empowerment.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by an Internal Research Grant of the Faculty of Business and Law, University of Wollongong, Australia.